Over the course of the twentieth century, growing recognition of the environmental and public health impacts associated with anthropogenic activities (discussed in the chapter Environmental Health Hazards) has prompted the development and application of methods and technologies to reduce the effects of pollution. In this context, governments have adopted regulatory and other policy measures (discussed in the chapter Environmental Policy) to minimize negative effects and ensure that environmental quality standards are achieved.

The objective of this chapter is to provide an orientation to the methods that are applied to control and prevent environmental pollution. The basic principles followed for eliminating negative impacts on the quality of water, air or land will be introduced; the shifting emphasis from control to prevention will be considered; and the limitations of building solutions for individual environmental media will be examined. It is not enough, for example, to protect air by removing trace metals from a flue gas only to transfer these contaminants to land through improper solid waste management practices. Integrated multimedia solutions are required.

The Pollution Control Approach

The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless incidents of land, air and water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and other pollutants, threatening humans and ecosystems with serious health risks. More extensive and intensive use of materials and energy has created cumulative pressures on the quality of local, regional and global ecosystems.

Before there was a concerted effort to restrict the impact of pollution, environmental management extended little beyond laissez-faire tolerance, tempered by disposal of wastes to avoid disruptive local nuisance conceived of in a short-term perspective. The need for remediation was recognized, by exception, in instances where damage was determined to be unacceptable. As the pace of industrial activity intensified and the understanding of cumulative effects grew, a pollution control paradigm became the dominant approach to environmental management.

Two specific concepts served as the basis for the control approach:

• the assimilative capacity concept, which asserts the existence of a specified level of emissions into the environment which does not lead to unacceptable environmental or human health effects
• the principle of control concept, which assumes that environmental damage can be avoided by controlling the manner, time and rate at which pollutants enter the environment

Under the pollution control approach, attempts to protect the environment have especially relied on isolating contaminants from the environment and using end-of-pipe filters and scrubbers. These solutions have tended to focus on media-specific environmental quality objectives or emission limits, and have been primarily directed at point source discharges into specific environmental media (air, water, soil).

Applying Pollution Control Technologies

Application of pollution control methods has demonstrated considerable effectiveness in controlling pollution problems - particularly those of a local character. Application of appropriate technologies is based on a systematic analysis of the source and nature of the emission or discharge in question, of its interaction with the ecosystem and the ambient pollution problem to be addressed, and the development of appropriate technologies to mitigate and monitor pollution impacts.

In their article on air pollution control, Dietrich Schwela and Berenice Goelzer explain the importance and implications of taking a comprehensive approach to assessment and control of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution. They also highlight the challenges - and opportunities - that are being addressed in countries that are undergoing rapid industrialization without having had a strong pollution control component accompanying earlier development.

Marion Wichman-Fiebig explains the methods that are applied to model air pollutant dispersion to determine and characterize the nature of pollution problems. This forms the basis for understanding the controls that are to be put into effect and for evaluating their effectiveness. As the understanding of potential impacts has deepened, appreciation of effects has expanded from the local to the regional to the global scale.

Hans-Ulrich Pfeffer and Peter Bruckmann provide an introduction to the equipment and methods that are used to monitor air quality so that potential pollution problems can be assessed and the effectiveness of control and prevention interventions can be evaluated.

John Elias provides an overview of the types of air pollution controls that can be applied and the issues that must be addressed in selecting appropriate pollution control management options.

The challenge of water pollution control is addressed by Herbert Preul in an article which explains the basis whereby the earth’s natural waters may become polluted from point, non-point and intermittent sources; the basis for regulating water pollution; and the different criteria that can be applied in determining control programmes. Preul explains the manner in which discharges are received in water bodies, and may be analysed and evaluated to assess and manage risks. Finally, an overview is provided of the techniques that are applied for large-scale wastewater treatment and water pollution control.

A case study provides a vivid example of how wastewater can be reused - a topic of considerable significance in the search for ways that environmental resources can be used effectively, especially in circumstances of scarcity. Alexander Donagi provides a summary of the approach that has been pursued for the treatment and groundwater recharge of municipal wastewater for a population of 1.5 million in Israel.

Comprehensive Waste Management

Under the pollution control perspective, waste is regarded as an undesirable by-product of the production process which is to be contained so as to ensure that soil, water and air resources are not contaminated beyond levels deemed to be acceptable. Lucien Maystre provides an overview of the issues that must be addressed in managing waste, providing a conceptual link to the increasingly important roles of recycling and pollution prevention.

In response to extensive evidence of the serious contamination associated with unrestricted management of waste, governments have established standards for acceptable practices for collection, handling and disposal to ensure environmental protection. Particular attention has been paid to the criteria for environmentally safe disposal through sanitary landfills, incineration and hazardous-waste treatment.

To avoid the potential environmental burden and costs associated with the disposal of waste and promote a more thorough stewardship of scarce resources, waste minimization and recycling have received growing attention. Niels Hahn and Poul Lauridsen provide a summary of the issues that are addressed in pursuing recycling as a preferred waste management strategy, and consider the potential worker exposure implications of this.

Shifting Emphasis to Pollution Prevention

End-of-pipe abatement risks transferring pollution from one medium to another, where it may either cause equally serious environmental problems, or even end up as an indirect source of pollution to the same medium. While not as expensive as remediation, end-of-pipe abatement can contribute significantly to the costs of production processes without contributing any value. It also typically is associated with regulatory regimes which add other sets of costs associated with enforcing compliance.

While the pollution control approach has achieved considerable success in producing short-term improvements for local pollution problems, it has been less effective in addressing cumulative problems that are increasingly recognized on regional (e.g., acid rain) or global (e.g., ozone depletion) levels.

The aim of a health-oriented environmental pollution control programme is to promote a better quality of life by reducing pollution to the lowest level possible. Environmental pollution control programmes and policies, whose implications and priorities vary from country to country, cover all aspects of pollution (air, water, land and so on) and involve coordination among areas such as industrial development, city planning, water resources development and transportation policies.

Thomas Tseng, Victor Shantora and Ian Smith provide a case study example of the multimedia impact that pollution has had on a vulnerable ecosystem subjected to many stresses - the North American Great Lakes. The limited effectiveness of the pollution control model in dealing with persistent toxins that dissipate through the environment is particularly examined. By focusing on the approach being pursued in one country and the implications that this has for international action, the implications for actions that address prevention as well as control are illustrated.

As environmental pollution control technologies have become more sophisticated and more expensive, there has been a growing interest in ways to incorporate prevention in the design of industrial processes - with the objective of eliminating harmful environmental effects while promoting the competitiveness of industries. Among the benefits of pollution prevention approaches, clean technologies and toxic use reduction is the potential for eliminating worker exposure to health risks.

David Bennett provides an overview of why pollution prevention is emerging as a preferred strategy and how it relates to other environmental management methods. This approach is central to implementing the shift to sustainable development which has been widely endorsed since the release of the United Nations Commission on Trade and Development in 1987 and reiterated at the Rio United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Conference in 1992.

The pollution prevention approach focuses directly on the use of processes, practices, materials and energy that avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and wastes at source, and not on “add-on” abatement measures. While corporate commitment plays a critical role in the decision to pursue pollution prevention (see Bringer and Zoesel in Environmental policy), Bennett draws attention to the societal benefits in reducing risks to ecosystem and human health—and the health of workers in particular. He identifies principles that can be usefully applied in assessing opportunities for pursuing this approach.

Back

A formal Environmental Management System (EMS), using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 14001 as the performance specification, has been developed and is being implemented in one of the largest teaching health care complexes in Canada. The Health Sciences Centre (HSC) consists of five hospitals and associated clinical and research laboratories, occupying a 32-acre site in central Winnipeg. Of the 32 segregated solid waste streams at the facility, hazardous wastes account for seven. This summary focuses on the hazardous waste disposal aspect of the hospital’s operations.

ISO 14000

The ISO 14000 standards system is a typical continuous improvement model based on a controlled management system. The ISO 14001 standard addresses the environmental management system structure exclusively. To conform with the standard, an organization must have processes in place for:

• adopting an environmental policy that sets environmental protection as a high priority

• identifying environmental impacts and setting performance goals

• identifying and complying with legal requirements

• assigning environmental accountability and responsibility throughout the organization

• applying controls to achieve performance goals and legal requirements

• monitoring and reporting environmental performance; auditing the EMS system

• conducting management reviews/ identifying opportunities for improvement.

The hierarchy for carrying out these processes in the HSC is presented in table 1.

Table 1. HSC EMS documentation hierarchy

ISO standards encourage businesses to integrate all environmental considerations into mainstream business decisions and not restrict attention to concerns that are regulated. Since the ISO standards are not technical documents, the function of specifying numerical standards remains the responsibility of governments or independent expert bodies.

Management System Approach

Applying the generic ISO framework in a health care facility requires the adoption of management systems along the lines of those in table 1, which describes how this has been addressed by the HSC. Each level in the system is supported by appropriate documentation to confirm diligence in the process. While the volume of work is substantial, it is compensated by the resulting performance consistency and by the “expert” information that remains within the corporation when experienced persons leave.

The main objective of the EMS is to establish consistent, controlled and repeatable processes for addressing the environmental aspects of the corporation’s operations. To facilitate management review of the hospital’s performance, an EMS Score Card was conceived based on the ISO 14001 standard. The Score Card closely follows the requirements in the ISO 14001 standard and, with use, will be developed into the hospital’s audit protocol.

Application of the EMS to the Hazardous Waste Process

Facility hazardous waste process

The HSC hazardous waste process currently consists of the following elements:

• procedure statement assigning responsibilities

• process description, in both text and flowchart formats

• Disposal Guide for Hazardous Waste for staff

• education programme for staff

• performance tracking system

• continuous improvement through multidisciplinary team process

• a process for seeking external partners.

The roles and responsibilities of the four main organizational units involved in the hazardous waste process are listed in table 2.

Table 2. Role and responsibilities

 Process description

The initial step in preparing a process description is to identify the inputs (see table 3 ).

Table 3. Process inputs

The next process component is the list of specific activities required for proper disposal of waste (see table 4 ).

Table 4. List of activities

Communication

To support the process description, the hospital produced a Disposal Guide for Hazardous Waste to assist staff in the proper disposal of hazardous waste materials. The guide contains information on the specific steps to follow in identifying hazardous waste and preparing it for disposal. Supplemental information is also provided on legislation, the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) and key contacts for assistance.

A database was developed to track all relevant information pertaining to each hazardous waste event from originating source to final disposal. In addition to waste data, information is also collected on the performance of the process (e.g., source and frequency of phone calls for assistance to identify areas which may require further training; source, type, quantity and frequency of disposal requests from each user department; consumption of containers and packaging). Any deviations from the process are recorded on the corporate incident reporting form. Results from performance monitoring are reported to the executive and the board of directors. To support effective implementation of the process, a staff education programme was developed to elaborate on the information in the guide. Each of the core participants in the process carries specific responsibilities on staff education.

Continuous Improvement

To explore continuous improvement opportunities, the HSC established a multidisciplinary Waste Process Improvement Team. The Team’s mandate is to address all issues pertaining to waste management. Further to encourage continuous improvement, the hazardous waste process includes specific triggers to initiate process revisions. Typical improvement ideas generated to date include:

• prepare list of high hazard materials to be tracked from time of procurement

• develop material “shelf life” information, where appropriate, for inclusion in the materials classification database

• review shelving for physical integrity

• purchase spill containing trays

• examine potential for spills entering sewer system

• determine whether present storage rooms are adequate for anticipated waste volume

• produce a procedure for disposing of old, incorrectly identified materials.

The ISO standards require regulatory issues to be addressed and state that business processes must be in place for this purpose. Under the ISO standards, the existence of corporate commitments, performance measuring and documentation provide a more visible and more convenient trail for regulators to check for compliance. It is conceivable that the opportunity for consistency provided by the ISO documents could automate reporting of key environmental performance factors to government authorities.

Back