Nordberg, Gunnar

Nordberg, Gunnar

Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:36

Arsenic

Gunnar Nordberg

There are three major groups of arsenic (As) compounds:

  1. inorganic arsenic compounds
  2. organic arsenic compounds
  3. arsine gas and substituted arsines.

     

    Occurrence and Uses

    Arsenic is found widely in nature and most abundantly in sulphide ores. Arsenopyrite (FeAsS) is the most abundant one.

    Elemental arsenic

    Elemental arsenic is utilized in alloys in order to increase their hardness and heat resistance (e.g., alloys with lead in shot-making and battery grids). It is also used in the manufacture of certain types of glass, as a component of electrical devices and as a doping agent in germanium and silicon solid-state products.

    Trivalent inorganic compounds

    Arsenic trichloride (AsCl3) is used in the ceramics industry and in the manufacturing of chlorine-containing arsenicals. Arsenic trioxide (As2O3), or white arsenic, is useful in the purification of synthesis gas and as a primary material for all arsenic compounds. It is also a preservative for hides and wood, a textile mordant, a reagent in mineral flotation, and a decolourizing and refining agent in glass manufacture. Calcium arsenite (Ca(As2H2O4)) and cupric acetoarsenite (usually considered Cu(COOCH3)2 3Cu(AsO2)2) are insecticides. Cupric acetoarsenite is also used for painting ships and submarines. Sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) is employed as a herbicide, a corrosion inhibitor, and as a drying agent in the textile industry. Arsenic trisulphide is a component of infrared-transmitting glass and a dehairing agent in the tanning industry. It is also used in the manufacturing of pyrotechnics and semiconductors.

    Pentavalent inorganic compounds

    Arsenic acid (H3AsO4·½H2O) is found in the manufacture of arsenates, glass making and wood-treating processes. Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5), an herbicide and a wood preservative, is also used in the manufacture of coloured glass.

    Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used as an insecticide.

    Organic arsenic compounds

    Cacodylic acid ((CH3)2AsOOH) is used as a herbicide and a defoliant. Arsanilic acid (NH2C6H4AsO(OH)2) finds use as a grasshopper bait and as an additive in animal feeds. Organic arsenic compounds in marine organisms occur in concentrations corresponding to a concentration of arsenic in the range 1 to 100 mg/kg in marine organisms such as shrimp and fish. Such arsenic is mainly made up of arsenobetaine and arsenocholine, organic arsenic compounds of low toxicity.

    Arsine gas and the substituted arsines. Arsine gas is used in organic syntheses and in the processing of solid-state electronic components. Arsine gas may also be generated inadvertently in industrial processes when nascent hydrogen is formed and arsenic is present.

    The substituted arsines are trivalent organic arsenical compounds which, depending on the number of alkyl or phenyl groups that they have attached to the arsenic nucleus, are known as mono-, di- or tri-substituted arsines. Dichloroethylarsine (C2H5AsCl2), or ethyldichloroarsine, is a colourless liquid with an irritant odour. This compound, like the following one, was developed as a potential chemical warfare agent.

    Dichloro(2-chlorovinyl-)arsine (ClCH:CHAsCl2), or chlorovinyldichloroarsine (lewisite), is an olive-green liquid with a germanium-like odour. It was developed as a potential warfare agent but never used. The agent dimercaprol or British anti-lewisite (BAL) was developed as an antidote.

    Dimethyl-arsine (CH3)2AsH, or cacodyl hydride and trimethylarsine (CH3)3As), or trimethylarsenic, are both colourless liquids. These two compounds can be produced after metabolic transformation of arsenic compounds by bacteria and fungi.

    Hazards

    Inorganic arsenic compounds

    General aspects of toxicity. Although it is possible that very small amounts of certain arsenic compounds may have beneficial effects, as indicated by some animal studies, arsenic compounds, particularly the inorganic ones, are otherwise regarded as very potent poisons. Acute toxicity varies widely among compounds, depending on their valency state and solubility in biological media. The soluble trivalent compounds are the most toxic. Uptake of inorganic arsenic compounds from the gastrointestinal tract is almost complete, but uptake may be delayed for less soluble forms such as arsenic trioxide in particle form. Uptake after inhalation is also almost complete, since even less soluble material deposited on the respiratory mucosa, will be transferred to the gastrointestinal tract and subsequently taken up.

    Occupational exposure to inorganic arsenic compounds through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact with subsequent absorption may occur in industry. Acute effects at the point of entry may occur if exposure is excessive. Dermatitis may occur as an acute symptom but is more often the result of toxicity from long-term exposure, sometimes subsequent to sensitization (see the section “Long-term exposure (chronic poisoning)”).

    Acute poisoning

    Exposure to high doses of inorganic arsenic compounds by a combination of inhalation and ingestion may occur as a result of accidents in industries where large amounts of arsenic (e.g., arsenic trioxide), are handled. Depending on dose, various symptoms may develop, and when doses are excessive, fatal cases may occur. Symptoms of conjunctivitis, bronchitis and dyspnoea, followed by gastrointestinal discomfort with vomiting, and subsequently cardiac involvement with irreversible shock, may occur in a time course of hours. Arsenic in blood was reported to be above 3 mg/l in a case with fatal outcome.

    With exposure to sub-lethal doses of irritant arsenic compounds in air (e.g., arsenic trioxide), there may be symptoms related to acute damage to the mucous membranes of the respiratory system and acute symptoms from exposed skin. Severe irritation of the nasal mucosae, larynx and bronchi, as well as conjunctivitis and dermatitis, occur in such cases. Perforation of the nasal septum can be observed in some individuals only after a few weeks following exposure. A certain tolerance against acute poisoning is believed to develop upon repeated exposure. This phenomenon, however, is not well documented in the scientific literature.

    Effects due to accidental ingestion of inorganic arsenicals, mainly arsenic trioxide, have been described in the literature. However, such incidents are rare in industry today. Cases of poisoning are characterized by profound gastrointestinal damage, resulting in severe vomiting and diarrhoea, which may result in shock and subsequent oliguria and albuminuria. Other acute symptoms are facial oedema, muscular cramps and cardiac abnormalities. Symptoms may occur within a few minutes following exposure to the poison in solution, but may be delayed for several hours if the arsenic compound is in solid form or if it is taken with a meal. When ingested as a particulate, toxicity is also dependent on solubility and particle size of the ingested compound. The fatal dose of ingested arsenic trioxide has been reported to range from 70 to 180 mg. Death may occur within 24 hours, but the usual course runs from 3 to 7 days. Acute intoxication with arsenic compounds is usually accompanied by anaemia and leucopenia, especially granulocytopenia. In survivors these effects are usually reversible within 2 to 3 weeks. Reversible enlargement of the liver is also seen in acute poisoning, but liver function tests and liver enzymes are usually normal.

    In individuals surviving acute poisoning, peripheral nervous disturbances frequently develop a few weeks after ingestion.

    Long-term exposure (chronic poisoning)

    General aspects. Chronic arsenic poisoning may occur in workers exposed for a long time to excessive concentrations of airborne arsenic compounds. Local effects in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and the skin are prominent features. Involvement of the nervous and circulatory system and the liver may also occur, as well as cancer of the respiratory tract.

    With long-term exposure to arsenic via ingestion in food, drinking water or medication, symptoms are partly different from those after inhalation exposure. Vague abdominal symptoms—diarrhoea or constipation, flushing of the skin, pigmentation and hyperkeratosis—dominate the clinical picture. In addition, there may be vascular involvement, reported in one area to have given rise to peripheral gangrene.

    Anaemia and leucocytopenia often occur in chronic arsenic poisoning. Liver involvement has been more commonly seen in persons exposed for a long time via oral ingestion than in those exposed via inhalation, particularly in vineyard workers considered to have been exposed mainly through drinking contaminated wine. Skin cancer occurs with excess frequency in this type of poisoning.

    Vascular disorders. Long-term oral exposure to inorganic arsenic via drinking water may give rise to peripheral vascular disorders with Raynaud’s phenomenon. In one area of Taiwan, China, peripheral gangrene (so-called Blackfoot disease) has occurred. Such severe manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement have not been observed in occupationally exposed persons, but slight changes with Raynaud’s phenomenon and an increased prevalence of low peripheral blood presssure on cooling have been found in workers exposed for a long time to airborne inorganic arsenic (doses of absorbed arsenic are given below.

    Dermatological disorders. Arsenical skin lesions differ somewhat, depending on the type of exposure. Eczematoid symptoms of varying degrees of severity do occur. In occupational exposure to mainly airborne arsenic, skin lesions may result from local irritation. Two types of dermatological disorders may occur:

    1. an eczematous type with erythema (redness), swelling and papules or vesicles
    2. a follicular type with erythema and follicular swelling or follicular pustules.

       

      Dermatitis is primarily localized on the most heavily exposed areas, such as the face, back of the neck, forearms, wrists and hands. However, it may also occur on the scrotum, the inner surfaces of the thighs, the upper chest and back, the lower legs and around the ankles. Hyperpigmentation and keratoses are not prominent features of this type of arsenical lesions. Patch tests have demonstrated that the dermatitis is due to arsenic, not to impurities present in the crude arsenic trioxide. Chronic dermal lesions may follow this type of initial reaction, depending on the concentration and duration of exposure. These chronic lesions may occur after many years of occupational or environmental exposure. Hyperkeratosis, warts and melanosis of the skin are the conspicuous signs.

      Melanosis is most commonly seen on the upper and lower eyelids, around the temples, on the neck, on the areolae of the nipples and in the folds of the axillae. In severe cases arsenomelanosis is observed on the abdomen, chest, back and scrotum, along with hyperkeratosis and warts. In chronic arsenic poisoning, depigmentation (i.e., leukoderma), especially on the pigmented areas, commonly called “raindrop” pigmentation, also occurs. These chronic skin lesions, particularly the hyperkeratoses, may develop into pre-cancerous and cancerous lesions. A transverse striation of the nails (so-called Mees lines) also occurs in chronic arsenical poisoning. It should be noted that the chronic skin lesions may develop long after cessation of exposure, when arsenic concentrations in skin have returned to normal.

      Mucous membrane lesions in chronic arsenic exposure is most classically reported as perforation of the nasal septum after inhalation exposure. This lesion is a result of irritation of the mucous membranes of the nose. Such irritation also extends to the larynx, trachea and bronchi. Both in inhalation exposure and in poisoning caused by repeated ingestion, dermatitis of the face and eyelids sometimes extends to keratoconjunctivitis.

      Peripheral neuropathy. Peripheral nervous disturbances are frequently encountered in survivors of acute poisoning. They usually start within a few weeks after the acute poisoning, and recovery is slow. The neuropathy is characterized by both motor dysfunction and paresthaesia, but in less severe cases only sensory unilateral neuropathy may occur. Often the lower extremities are more affected than the upper ones. In subjects recovering from arsenical poisoning, Mees lines of the fingernails may develop. Histological examination has revealed Wallerian degeneration, especially in the longer axons. Peripheral neuropathy also may occur in industrial arsenic exposure, in most cases in a subclinical form that can be detected only by neurophysiological methods. In a group of smelter workers with long-term exposure corresponding to a mean cumulative total absorption of approximately 5 g (maximal absorption of 20 g), there was a negative correlation between cumulative absorption of arsenic and nerve conduction velocity. There were also some light clinical manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement in these workers (see above). In children exposed to arsenic, hearing loss has been reported.

      Carcinogenic effects. Inorganic arsenic compounds are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as lung and skin carcinogens. There is also some evidence to suggest that persons exposed to inorganic arsenic compounds suffer a higher incidence of angiosarcoma of the liver and possibly of stomach cancer. Cancer of the respiratory tract has been reported in excess frequency among workers engaged in the production of insecticides containing lead arsenate and calcium arsenate, in vine-growers spraying insecticides containing inorganic copper and arsenic compounds, and in smelter workers exposed to inorganic compounds of arsenic and a number of other metals. The latency time between onset of exposure and the appearance of cancer is long, usually between 15 and 30 years. A synergistic action of tobacco smoking has been demonstrated for lung cancer.

      Long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic via drinking water has been associated with an increased incidence of skin cancer in Taiwan and in Chile. This increase has been shown to be related to concentration in drinking water.

      Teratogenic effects. High doses of trivalent inorganic arsenic compounds may cause malformations in hamsters when injected intravenously. With regard to human beings there is no firm evidence that arsenic compounds cause malformations under industrial conditions. Some evidence, however, suggests such an effect in workers in a smelting environment who were exposed simultaneously also to a number of other metals as well as other compounds.

      Organic arsenic compounds

      Organic arsenicals used as pesticides or as drugs may also give rise to toxicity, although such adverse effects are incompletely documented in humans.

      Toxic effects on the nervous system have been reported in experimental animals following feeding with high doses of arsanilic acid, which is commonly used as a feed additive in poultry and swine.

      The organic arsenic compounds that occur in foodstuffs of marine origin, such as shrimp, crab and fish, are made up of arsinocholine and arsinobetaine. It is well known that the amounts of organic arsenic that are present in fish and shellfish can be consumed without ill effects. These compounds are quickly excreted, mainly via urine.

      Arsine gas and the substituted arsines. Many cases of acute arsine poisoning have been recorded, and there is a high fatality rate. Arsine is one of the most powerful haemolytic agents found in industry. Its haemolytic activity is due to its ability to cause a fall in erythrocyte-reduced glutathion content.

      Signs and symptoms of arsine poisoning include haemolysis, which develops after a latent period that is dependent on the intensity of exposure. Inhalation of 250 ppm of arsine gas is instantly lethal. Exposure to 25 to 50 ppm for 30 minutes is lethal, and 10 ppm may be lethal after longer exposures. The signs and symptoms of poisoning are those characteristic of an acute and massive haemolysis. Initially there is a painless haemoglobinuria, gastrointestinal disturbance such as nausea and possibly vomiting. There may also be abdominal cramps and tenderness. Jaundice accompanied by anuria and oliguria subsequently occurs. Evidence of bone marrow depression may be present. After acute and severe exposure, a peripheral neuropathy may develop and can still be present several months after poisoning. Little is known about repeated or chronic exposure to arsine, but since the arsine gas is metabolized to inorganic arsenic in the body, it can be assumed that there is a risk for symptoms similar to those in long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic compounds.

      The differential diagnosis should take account of acute haemolytic anaemias that could be caused by other chemical agents such as stibine or drugs, and secondary immunohaemolytic anaemias.

      The substituted arsines do not give rise to haemolysis as their main effect, but they act as powerful local and pulmonary irritants and systemic poisons. The local effect on the skin gives rise to sharply circumscribed blisters in the case of dichloro(2-chlorovinyl-)arsine (lewisite). The vapour induces marked spasmodic coughing with frowzy or blood-stained sputum, progressing to acute pulmonary oedema. Dimercaprol (BAL) is an effective antidote if given in the early stages of poisoning.

      Safety and Health Measures

      The most common type of occupational arsenic exposure is to inorganic arsenic compounds, and these safety and health measures are mainly related to such exposures. When there is a risk of exposure to arsine gas, particular attention needs to be paid to accidental leaks, since peak exposures for short intervals may be of special concern.

      The best means of prevention is to keep exposure well below accepted exposure limits. A programme of measurement of air-concentrations of arsenic is thus of importance. In addition to inhalation exposure, oral exposure via contaminated clothes, hands, tobacco and so on should be watched, and biological monitoring of inorganic arsenic in urine may be useful for evaluation of absorbed doses. Workers should be supplied with suitable protective clothing, protective boots and, when there is a risk that the exposure limit for airborne arsenic will be exceeded, respiratory protective equipment. Lockers should be provided with separate compartments for work and personal clothes, and adjacent sanitary facilities of a high standard should be made available. Smoking, eating and drinking at the workplace should not be allowed. Pre-employment medical examinations should be carried out. It is not recommended to employ persons with pre-existing diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, anaemia, allergic or other skin diseases, neurologic, hepatic or renal lesions, in arsenic work. Periodic medical examinations of all arsenic-exposed employees should be performed with special attention to possible arsenic-related symptoms.

      Determination of the level of inorganic arsenic and its metabolites in urine allows estimation of the total dose of inorganic arsenic taken up by various exposure routes. Only when inorganic arsenic and its metabolites can be specifically measured is this method useful. Total arsenic in urine may often give erroneous information about industrial exposure, since even a single meal of fish or other marine organisms (containing considerable amounts of non-toxic organic arsenic compound) may cause greatly elevated urinary arsenic concentrations for several days.

      Treatment

      Arsine gas poisoning. When there is reason to believe that there has been considerable exposure to arsine gas, or upon observation of the first symptoms (e.g., haemoglobinuria and abdominal pain), immediate removal of the individual from the contaminated environment and prompt medical attention are required. The recommended treatment, if there is any evidence of impaired renal function, consists of total-replacement blood transfusion associated with prolonged artificial dialysis. Forced diuresis has proved useful in some cases, whereas, in the opinion of most authors, treatment with BAL or other chelating agents seems to have only limited effect.

      Exposure to the substituted arsines should be treated in the same way as inorganic arsenic poisoning (see below).

      Poisoning by inorganic arsenic. If there has been exposure to doses that can be estimated to give rise to acute poisoning, or if severe symptoms from the respiratory system, the skin or the gastrointestinal tract occur in the course of long-term exposures, the worker should immediately be removed from exposure and treated with a complexing agent.

      The classical agent which has been used most widely in such situations is 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanol or British anti-lewisite (BAL, dimercaprol). Prompt administration in such cases is vital: to obtain maximal benefit such treatment should be given within 4 hours of poisoning. Other pharmaceuticals which may be used are sodium 2,3-dimercaptopropanesulphonate (DMPS or unithiol) or meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). These drugs are less likely to give side effects and are believed to be more effective than BAL. Intravenous administration of N-acetylcysteine has been reported in one case to be of value; in addition, general treatment, such as prevention of further absorption by removal from exposure and minimizing absorption from the gastrointestinal tract by gastric lavage and administration by gastric tube of chelating agents or charcoal, is mandatory. General supportive therapy, such as maintenance of respiration and circulation, maintenance of water and electrolyte balance, and control of nervous system effects, as well as elimination of absorbed poison through haemodialysis and exchange transfusion, may be used if feasible.

      Acute skin lesions such as contact dermatitis and mild manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement, such as Raynaud’s syndrome, usually do not require treatment other than removal from exposure.

       

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      Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:31

      Antimony

      Gunnar Nordberg

      Antimony is stable at room temperature but, when heated, burns brilliantly, giving off dense white fumes of antimony oxide (Sb2O3) with a garlic-like odour. It is closely related, chemically, to arsenic. It readily forms alloys with arsenic, lead, tin, zinc, iron and bismuth.

      Occurrence and Uses

      In nature, antimony is found in combination with numerous elements, and the most common ores are stibnite (SbS3), valentinite (Sb2O3), kermesite (Sb2S2O) and senarmontite (Sb2O3).

      High-purity antimony is employed in the manufacture of semiconductors. Normal-purity antimony is used widely in the production of alloys, to which it imparts increased hardness, mechanical strength, corrosion resistance and a low coefficient of friction; alloys combining tin, lead and antimony are used in the electrical industry. Among the more important antimony alloys are babbitt, pewter, white metal, Britannia metal and bearing metal. These are used for bearing shells, storage battery plates, cable sheathing, solder, ornamental castings and ammunition. The resistance of metallic antimony to acids and bases is put to effect in the manufacture of chemical plants.

      Hazards

      The principal hazard of antimony is that of intoxication by ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption. The respiratory tract is the most important route of entry since antimony is so frequently encountered as a fine airborne dust. Ingestion may occur through swallowing dust or through contamination of beverages, food or tobacco. Skin absorption is less common, but may occur when antimony is in prolonged contact with skin.

      The dust encountered in antimony mining may contain free silica, and cases of pneumoconiosis (termed silico-antimoniosis) have been reported among antimony miners. During processing, the antimony ore, which is extremely brittle, is converted into fine dust more rapidly than the accompanying rock, leading to high atmospheric concentrations of fine dust during such operations as reduction and screening. Dust produced during crushing is relatively coarse, and the remaining operations—classification, flotation, filtration and so on—are wet processes and, consequently, dust free. Furnace workers who refine metallic antimony and produce antimony alloy, and workers setting type in the printing industry, are all exposed to antimony metal dust and fumes, and may present diffuse miliar opacities in the lung, with no clinical or functional signs of impairment in the absence of silica dust.

      Inhalation of antimony aerosols may produce localized reactions of the mucous membrane, respiratory tract and lungs. Examination of miners and concentrator and smelter workers exposed to antimony dust and fumes has revealed dermatitis, rhinitis, inflammation of upper and lower respiratory tracts, including pneumonitis and even gastritis, conjunctivitis and perforations of the nasal septum.

      Pneumoconiosis, sometimes in combination with obstructive lung changes, has been reported following long-term exposure in humans. Although antimony pneumoconiosis is regarded as benign, the chronic respiratory effects associated with heavy antimony exposure are not considered harmless. In addition, effects on the heart, even fatal, have been related to long-term occupational exposure to antimony trioxide.

      Pustular skin infections are sometimes seen in persons working with antimony and antimony salts. These eruptions are transient and primarily affect the skin areas in which heat exposure or sweating has occurred.

      Toxicology

      In its chemical properties and metabolic action, antimony has a close resemblance to arsenic, and, since the two elements are sometimes found in association, the action of antimony may be blamed on arsenic, especially in foundry workers. However, experiments with high-purity metallic antimony have shown that this metal has a completely independent toxicology; different authors have found the average lethal dose to be between 10 and 11.2 mg/100 g.

      Antimony may enter the body through the skin, but the principal route is through the lungs. From the lungs, antimony, and especially free antimony, is absorbed and taken up by the blood and tissues. Studies on workers and experiments with radioactive antimony have shown that the major part of the absorbed dose enters the metabolism within 48 hours and is eliminated in the faeces and, to a lesser extent, the urine. The remainder stays in the blood for some considerable time, with the erythrocytes containing several times more antimony than the serum. In workers exposed to pentavalent antimony, the urinary excretion of antimony is related to the intensity of exposure. It has been estimated that after 8 hours exposure to 500 µg Sb/m3, the increase in concentration of antimony excreted in the urine at the end of a shift amounts on average to 35 µg/g creatinine.

      Antimony inhibits the activity of certain enzymes, binds sulphydryl groups in the serum, and disturbs protein and carbohydrate metabolism and the production of glycogen by the liver. Prolonged animal experiments with antimony aerosols have led to the development of distinctive endogenous lipoid pneumonia. Cardiac injury and cases of sudden death have also been reported in workers exposed to antimony. Focal fibrosis of the lung and cardiovascular effects have also been observed in animal trials.

      The therapeutic use of antimonial drugs has made it possible to detect, in particular, the cumulative myocardial toxicity of the trivalent derivatives of antimony (which are excreted more slowly than pentavalent derivatives). Reduction in amplitude of T wave, increase of QT interval and arrhythmias have been observed in the electrocardiogram.

      Symptoms

      The symptoms of acute poisoning include violent irritation of the mouth, nose, stomach and intestines; vomiting and bloody stools; slow, shallow respiration; coma sometimes followed by death due to exhaustion and hepatic and renal complications. Those of chronic poisoning are: dryness of throat, nausea, headaches, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, and dizziness. Gender differences in the effects of antimony have been noted by some authors, but the differences are not well established.

      Compounds

      Stibine (SbH3), or antimony hydride (hydrogen antimonide), is produced by dissolving zinc-antimony or magnesium-antimony alloy in dilute hydrochloric acid. However, it occurs frequently as a by-product in the processing of metals containing antimony with reducing acids or in overcharging storage batteries. Stibine has been used as a fumigating agent. High-purity stibine is used as an n-type gas-phase dopant for silicon in semiconductors. Stibine is an extremely hazardous gas. Like arsine it may destroy blood cells and cause haemoglobinuria, jaundice, anuria and death. Symptoms include headache, nausea, epigastric pain and passage of dark red urine following exposure.

      Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is the most important of the antimony oxides. When airborne, it tends to remain suspended for an exceptionally long time. It is obtained from antimony ore by a roasting process or by oxidizing metallic antimony and subsequent sublimation, and is used for the manufacture of tartar emetic, as a paint pigment, in enamels and glazes, and as a flameproofing compound.

      Antimony trioxide is both a systemic poison and a skin disease hazard, although its toxicity is three times less than that of the metal. In long-term animal experiments, rats exposed to antimony trioxide via inhalation showed a high frequency of lung tumours. An excess of deaths due to cancer of the lung among workers engaged in antimony smelting for more than 4 years, at an average concentration in air of 8 mg/m3, has been reported from Newcastle. In addition to antimony dust and fumes, the workers were exposed to zircon plant effluents and caustic soda. No other experiences were informative on the carcinogenic potential of antimony trioxide. This has been classified by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as a chemical substance associated with industrial processes which are suspected of inducing cancer.

      Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5) is produced by the oxidation of the trioxide or the pure metal, in nitric acid under heat. It is used in the manufacture of paints and lacquers, glass, pottery and pharmaceuticals. Antimony pentoxide is noted for its low degree of toxic hazard.

      Antimony trisulphide (Sb2S3) is found as a natural mineral, antimonite, but can also be synthesized. It is used in the pyrotechnics, match and explosives industries, in ruby glass manufacture, and as a pigment and plasticizer in the rubber industry. An apparent increase in heart abnormalities has been found in persons exposed to the trisulphide. Antimony pentasulphide (Sb2S5) has much the same uses as the trisulphide and has a low level of toxicity.

      Antimony trichloride (SbCl3), or antimonous chloride (butter of antimony), is produced by the interaction of chlorine and antimony or by dissolving antimony trisulphide in hydrochloric acid. Antimony pentachloride (SbCl5) is produced by the action of chlorine on molten antimony trichloride. The antimony chlorides are used for blueing steel and colouring aluminium, pewter and zinc, and as catalysts in organic synthesis, especially in the rubber and pharmaceutical industries. In addition, antimony trichloride is used in the match and petroleum industries. They are highly toxic substances, act as irritants and are corrosive to the skin. The trichloride has an LD50 of 2.5 mg/100 g.

      Antimony trifluoride (SbF3) is prepared by dissolving antimony trioxide in hydrofluoric acid, and is used in organic synthesis. It is also employed in dyeing and pottery manufacture. Antimony trifluoride is highly toxic and an irritant to the skin. It has an LD50 of 2.3 mg/100 g.

      Safety and Health Measures

      The essence of any safety programme for the prevention of antimony poisoning should be the control of dust and fume formation at all stages of processing.

      In mining, dust prevention measures are similar to those for metal mining in general. During crushing, the ore should be sprayed or the process completely enclosed and fitted with local exhaust ventilation combined with adequate general ventilation. In antimony smelting the hazards of charge preparation, furnace operation, fettling and electrolytic cell operation should be eliminated, where possible, by isolation and process automation. Furnace workers should be provided with water sprays and effective ventilation.

      Where complete elimination of exposure is not possible, the hands, arms and faces of workers should be protected by gloves, dustproof clothing and goggles, and, where atmospheric exposure is high, respirators should be provided. Barrier creams should also be applied, especially when handling soluble antimony compounds, in which case they should be combined with the use of waterproof clothing and rubber gloves. Personal hygiene measures should be strictly observed; no food or beverages should be consumed in the workshops, and suitable sanitary facilities should be provided so that workers can wash before meals and before leaving work.

       

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      Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:23

      Aluminium

      Gunner Nordberg

      Occurrence and uses

      Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust, where it is found in combination with oxygen, fluorine, silica, etc., but never in the metallic state. Bauxite is the principal source of aluminium. It consists of a mixture of minerals formed by the weathering of aluminium-bearing rocks. Bauxites are the richest form of these weathered ores, containing up to 55% alumina. Some lateritic ores (containing higher percentages of iron) contain up to 35% Al2O3· Commercial deposits of bauxite are mainly gibbsite (Al2O3·3H2O) and boehmite (Al2O3·H2O) and are found in Australia, Guyana, France, Brazil, Ghana, Guinea, Hungary, Jamaica and Suriname. World production of bauxite in 1995 was 111,064 million tonnes. Gibbsite is more readily soluble in sodium hydroxide solutions than boehmite and is therefore preferred for aluminium oxide production.

      Aluminium is used widely throughout industry and in larger quantities than any other non-ferrous metal; worldwide primary metal production in 1995 was estimated at 20,402 million tonnes. It is alloyed with a variety of other material including copper, zinc, silicon, magnesium, manganese and nickel and may contain small amounts of chromium, lead, bismuth, titanium, zirconium and vanadium for special purposes. Aluminium and aluminium alloy ingots can be extruded or processed in rolling mills, wire-works, forges or foundries. The finished products are used in shipbuilding for internal fittings and superstructures; the electrical industry for wires and cables; the building industry for house and window frames, roofs and cladding; aircraft industry for airframes and aircraft skin and other components; automobile industry for bodywork, engine blocks and pistons; light engineering for domestic appliances and office equipment and in the jewellery industry. A major application of sheet is in beverage or food containers, while aluminium foil is used for packaging; a fine particulate form of aluminium is employed as a pigment in paints and in the pyrotechnics industry. Articles manufactured from aluminium are frequently given a protective and decorative surface finish by anodization.

      Aluminium chloride is used in petroleum cracking and in the rubber industry. It fumes in air to form hydrochloric acid and combines explosively with water; consequently, containers should be kept tightly closed and protected from moisture.

      Alkyl aluminium compounds. These are growing in importance as catalysts for the production of low-pressure polyethylene. They present a toxic, burn and fire hazard. They are extremely reactive with air, moisture and compounds containing active hydrogen and therefore must be kept under a blanket of inert gas.

      Hazards

      For the production of aluminium alloys, refined aluminium is melted in oil or gas-fired furnaces. A regulated amount of hardener containing aluminium blocks with a percentage of manganese, silicon, zinc, magnesium, etc. is added. The melt is then mixed and is passed into a holding furnace for degassing by passing either argon-chlorine or nitrogen-chlorine through the metal. The resultant gas emission (hydrochloric acid, hydrogen and chlorine) has been associated with occupational illnesses and great care should be taken to see that appropriate engineering controls capture the emissions and also prevent it from reaching the external environment, where it can also cause damage. Dross is skimmed off the surface of the melt and placed in containers to minimize exposure to air during cooling. A flux containing fluoride and/or chloride salts is added to the furnace to assist in separation of pure aluminium from the dross. Aluminium oxide and fluoride fumes may be given off so that this aspect of production must also be carefully controlled. Personal protective equipment (PPE) may be required. The aluminium smelting process is described in the chapter Metal processing and metal working industry. In the casting shops, exposure to sulphur dioxide may also occur.

      A wide range of different crystalline forms of aluminium oxide is used as smelter feed stock, abrasives, refractories and catalysts. A series of reports published in 1947 to 1949 described a progressive, non-nodular interstitial fibrosis in the aluminium abrasives industry in which aluminium oxide and silicon were processed. This condition, known as Shaver’s disease, was rapidly progressive and often fatal. The exposure of the victims (workers producing alundum) was to a dense fume comprising aluminium oxide, crystalline free-silica and iron. The particulates were of a size range that made them highly respirable. It is likely that the preponderence of disease is attributable to the highly damaging lung effects of the finely divided crystalline free-silica, rather than to the inhaled aluminium oxide, although the exact aetiology of the disease is not understood. Shaver’s disease is primarily of historical interest now, since no reports have been made in the second half of the 20th century.

      Recent studies of the health effects of high level exposures (100 mg/m3) to the oxides of aluminium amongst workers engaged in the Bayer process (described in the chapter Metal processing and metal working industry) have demonstrated that workers with more than twenty years of exposure can develop pulmonary alterations. These changes are clinically characterized by minor, predominantly asymptomatic degrees of restrictive pulmonary function changes. The chest x-ray examinations revealed small, scanty, irregular opacities, particularly at the lung bases. These clinical responses have been attributed to deposition of dust in the lung paraenchyma, which was the result of very high occupational exposures. These signs and symptoms cannot be compared to the extreme response of Shaver’s disease. It should be noted that other epidemiological studies in the United Kingdom regarding widespread alumina exposures in the pottery industry have produced no evidence that the inhalation of alumina dust produces chemical or radiographic signs of pulmonary disease or dysfunction.

      The toxicological effects of aluminium oxides remain of interest because of its commerical importance. The results of animal experiments are controversial. An especially fine (0.02 μm to 0.04 μm), catalytically active aluminium oxide, uncommonly used commercially, can cause lung changes in animals dosed by injection directly into the lung airways. Lower dose effects have not been observed.

      It should also be noted that so-called “potroom asthma” which has frequently been observed among workers in aluminium processing operations, is probably attributable to the exposures to fluoride fluxes, rather than to the aluminium dust itself.

      The production of aluminium has been classified as a Group 1, known human carcinogenic exposure situation, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). As with the other diseases described above, the carcinogenicity is most likely attributable to the other substances present (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and silica dust), although the exact role of the alumina dusts are simply not understood.

      Some data on the absorption of high levels of aluminium and nervous tissue damage are found among individuals requiring kidney dialysis. These high levels of aluminium have resulted in severe, even fatal brain damage. This response, however, has also been observed in other patients undergoing dialysis but who did not have similar elevated brain aluminium level. Animal experiments have been unsuccessful in replicating this brain response, or Alzheimer’s disease, which has also been postulated in the literature. Epidemiological and clinical follow-up studies on these issues have not been definitive and no evidence of such effects has been observed in the several large-scale epidemiological studies of aluminium workers.

       

      Back

      Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:02

      General Profile

      This chapter presents a series of short discussions of many metals. It contains a tabulation of major health effects, physical properties and physical and chemical hazards associated with these metals and many of their compounds (see table 1 and table 2). Not every metal is covered in this chapter. Cobalt and beryllium, for example, appear in the chapter Respiratory sytem. Other metals are discussed in more detail in articles that present information on the industries in which they predominate. The radioactive elements are discussed in the chapter Radiation, ionizing.

      Table 1. Physical and chemical hazards

      Chemical name

      CAS-number

      Molecular formula

      Physical and chemical hazards

      UN class/div/
subsidiary risks

      Aluminium chloride 
7446-70-0

      AICI3

       

      8

      Aluminium hydroxide
21645-51-2

      AI(OH)3

      • Forms gels (Al2·3H2O) on prolonged contact with water; absorbs acids and carbon dioxide
       

      Aluminium nitrate 
13473-90-0

      Al2(NO3)3

       

      5.1

      Aluminium phosphide 
20859-73-8

      AlP

      • Reacts with moist air, water, acids producing highly toxic fumes of phosphine
      • Reacts with water, moist air, acids causing fire and toxic (phosphine fumes) hazard

      4.3/ 6.1

      Diethylaluminium chloride 
96-10-6

      AlClC4H10

       

      4.2

      Ethylaluminium dichloride
563-43-9

      AlCl2C2H5

       

      4.2

      Ethylaluminium 
sesquichloride 
12075-68-2

      Al2Cl3C6H15

       

      4.2

      Sodium aluminate 
1302-42-7

       
      • The substance is a strong base, it reacts violently with acid and is corrosive
      • The solution in water is a strong base, it reacts violently with acid and is corrosive to aluminium and zinc

      8

      Triethylaluminium 
97-93-8

      AlC6H15

       

      4.2

      Triisobutylaluminium
100-99-2

      AlC12H27

       

      4.2

      Antimony 
7440-36-0

      Sb

      • On combustion, forms toxic fumes (antimony oxides) 
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants (e.g., halogens, alkali permanganates and nitrates), causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Reacts with nascent hydrogen in acid medium producing very toxic gas 
      • On contact with hot concentrated acids, emits toxic gas (stibine)

      6.1

      Antimony pentachloride 
7647-18-9

      SbCl5

       

      8

      Antimony pentafluoride 
7783-70-2

      SbF5

       

      3/ 6.1

      Antimony potassium tartrate
28300-74-5

      Sb2K2C8H4O12 ·
3H2O

       

      6.1

      Antimony trichloride 
10025-91-9

      SbCl3

       

      8

      Antimony trioxide 
1309-64-4

      Sb2O3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of antimony
      • Reacts under certain circumstances with hydrogen producing a very poisonous gas, stibine
       

      Stibine 
7803-52-3

      SbH3

      • The substance decomposes slowly at room temperature producing metallic antimony and hydrogen
      • Reacts violently with ozone and concentrated nitric 
acid causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • The substance decomposes on heating 
producing toxic fumes of antimony 
      • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

      2.3/ 2.1

      Arsenic 
7440-38-2

      As

      • Reacts with acids, oxidants, halogens 
      • The substance produces toxic fumes

      6.1

      Arsenic acid, copper salt
10103-61-4

      CuAsOH4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic by comparation with another compounds 
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas
       

      Arsenic acid, 
diammonium salt
7784-44-3

      (NH4)2AsOH4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including arsenic, nitrogen oxides and ammonia 
      • Reacts with acids producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
      • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
       

      Arsenic acid, 
disodium salt 
7778-43-0

      Na2AsOH4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
      • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
       

      Arsenic acid, 
magnesium salt 
10103-50-1

      MgxAsO3H4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic fumes of arsine gas

      6.1

      Arsenic acid, 
monopotassium salt 
7784-41-0

      KAsO2H4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
      • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
       

      Arsenic pentoxide
1303-28-2

      As2O5

      • The substance decomposes on heating above 300 °C producing toxic fumes (arsenic trioxide) and oxygen 
      • The solution in water is a medium strong acid, which may react with reducing substances producing very toxic gas (arsine) 
      • Reacts violently with bromine pentafluoride causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Corrosive to metals in the presence of moisture

      6.1

      Arsenic trioxide 
1327-53-3

      As2O3

      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts with oxidants 
      • The solution in water is a weak acid which may react with reducing substances producing very toxic gas (arsine) 
      • Gives off toxic fumes in a fire

      6.1

      Arsenious acid, 
copper(2+) salt(1:1)
10290-12-7

      CuAsH3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic fumes of arsine gas

      6.1

      Arsenious acid, lead(II) salt
10031-13-7

      PbAs2O4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing very toxic fumes of arsenic and lead
      • Reacts with oxidants · Reacts violently with strong acids
       

      Arsenious acid, 
potassium salt 
10124-50-2

      (KH3)x AsO3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic and potassium oxide
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
      • Decomposes on contact with air (by atmospheric carbon dioxide) and through the skin

      6.1

      Arsenous trichloride 
7784-34-1

      AsCl3

      • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light producing toxic fumes of hydrogen chloride and arsenic oxides 
      • Reacts violently with bases, strong oxidants and water, causing fire and toxic hazard 
      • On contact with air it emits corrosive fumes of hydrogen chloride
      • Attacks many metals forming combustible gas (hydrogen) in presence of moisture

      6.1

      Arsine 
7784-42-1

      AsH3

      • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light and moisture producing toxic arsenic fumes 
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, fluorine, chlorine, nitric acid, nitrogen trichloride, causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible 
      • As a result of flow, agitation, etc., electrostatic charges can be generated, conductivity not checked

      2.3/ 2.1

      Calcium arsenate 
7778-44-1

      Ca3As2O8

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
      • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas

      6.1

      Lead arsenate 
7784-40-9

      PbAsO4H

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of lead, arsenic and its compounds, including arsine

      6.1

      Methylarsonic acid 
124-58-3

      AsCH503

      • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing toxic fumes (arsenic oxides)
      • The solution in water is a medium strong acid, which may react with reducing substances, active metals (i.e., iron, aluminium, zinc) producing toxic gas (methylarsine)
       

      Sodium arsenate
10048-95-0

      Na2AsO4H ·7H2O

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including arsenic, arsenic oxides
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, strong acids and metals such as iron, aluminium and zinc causing explosion and toxic hazard

      6.1

      Barium 
7440-39-3

      Ba

      • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air (if in powder form)
      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants and acids
      • Reacts with water, forming combustible gas (hydrogen) and barium hydroxide 
      • Reacts violently with halogenated solvents causing fire and explosion hazard

      4.3

      Barium carbonate 
513-77-9

      BaCO3

       

      6.1

      Barium chlorate 
13477-00-4

      BaCl2O6

      • Heating may cause violent combustion or explosion 
      • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with organic compounds, reducing agents, ammonia-containing agents, metal powders, and sulphuric acid 
      • The substance decomposes violently on warming, on heating and on burning producing oxygen and toxic fumes, causing fire and explosion hazard
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air

      5.1/ 6.1

      Barium chloride 
10361-37-2

      BaCl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes

      6.1

      Barium chloride, dihydrate 
10326-27-9

      BaCl2·2H20

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes

      6.1

      Barium 
chromate (VI) 
10294-40-3

      BaCrH2O4

       

      6.1

      Barium hydroxide 
17194-00-2

      Ba(OH)2

       

      6.1

      Barium nitrate 
10022-31-8

      BaNO3

       

      5.1/ 6.1

      Barium oxide 
1304-28-5

      BaO

      • The solution in water is a medium strong base 
      • Reacts violently with water, hydrogen sulphide, hydroxylamine, and sulphur trioxide, causing fire and explosion hazard

      6.1

      Barium perchlorate 
13465-95-7

      BaCl2O8

       

      5.1/ 6.1

      Barium peroxide 
1304-29-6

      BaO2

      • The substance can presumably form explosive peroxides 
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials 
      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts with oxidants 
      • Reacts with water and acids forming hydrogen peroxide and barium oxide 
      • Mixtures with organic substances may be ignited or exploded on shock, friction or concussion

      5.1/ 6.1

      Barium sulphate 
7727-43-7

      BaSO4

      • The substance emits toxic fumes of sulphur oxides when heated to 
decomposition 
      • Reduction of barium sulphate by aluminium is attended by violent explosions

      6.1

      Beryllium 
7440-41-7

      Be

       

      6.1

      Beryllium oxide 
1304-56-9

      BeO

       

      6.1

      Cadmium 
7440-43-9

      Cd

      • Reacts with acids giving off flammable hydrogen gas 
      • Dust reacts with oxidants, hydrogen azide, zinc, selenium or tellurium, causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
       

      Cadmium acetate 
543-90-8

      Cd(C2H4O2)2

       

      6.1

      Cadmium chloride 
10108-64-2

      CdCl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing very toxic fumes of cadmium and chlorine
      • Solution in water is a weak acid · Reacts with strong oxidants
      • Reacts violently with fluoride, bromide and potassium and acids

      6.1

      Cadmium oxide 
1306-19-0

      CdO

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of cadmium
      • Reacts violently with magnesium when heated causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Reacts with acids, oxidants

      6.1

      Cadmium suphate 
10124-36-4

      CdSO4

       

      6.1

      Cadmium sulphide 
1306-23-6

      CdS

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • Reacts with strong oxidants 
      • Reacts with acids forming toxic gas (hydrogen sulphide) 
      • Gives off toxic fumes in a fire

      6.1

      Ammonium dichromate(VI)
7789-09-5

      (NH4)2Cr2H2O7

       

      5.1

      Chromic acid 
7738-94-5

      CrH2O4

       

      8

      Chromium 
7440-47-3

      Cr

       

      5.1

      Chromium trioxide 
1333-82-0

      CrO3

       

      5.1

      Chromyl chloride 
14977-61-8

      CrO2Cl2

      • The substance decomposes violently on contact with water producing toxic and corrosive fumes (hydrochloric acid, chlorine, chromium trioxide and chromium trichloride) 
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials 
      • Reacts violently with water, non-metal halides, non-metal hydrides, ammonia and certain common solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, turpentine, causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Attacks many metals in presence of water 
      • Incompatible with plastics 
      • Can ignite combustible substances

      8

      Cobalt 
7440-48-4

      Co

      • Reacts with strong oxidants (e.g., fused ammonium nitrate) causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Certain forms of cobalt metal powder can ignite spontaneously on contact with oxygen or air (pyrophoric) 
      • Can promote decomposition of various organic substances
       

      Cobalt chloride 
7646-79-9

      CoCl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chlorine and cobalt 
      • Reacts violently with alkali metals such as potassium or sodium causing fire and explosion hazard
       

      Cobalt (III) oxide 
1308-04-9

      Co2O3

      • Reacts violently with hydrogen peroxide 
      • Reacts with reducing agents
       

      Cobalt naphthenate 
61789-51-3

      CoC22H20O4

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • As a result of flow, agitation, etc., electrostatic charges can be generated 
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
       

      Copper 
7440-50-8

      Cu

      • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylenic compounds, ethylene oxides and azides 
      • Reacts with strong oxidants like chlorates, bromates and iodates, causing explosion hazard
       

      Copper (I) oxide 
1317-39-1

      Cu2O

      • Reacts with acids to form cupric salts · Corrodes aluminium
       

      Cupric acetate 
142-71-2

      CuC4H6O4

       

      6.1

      Cupric chloride 
7447-39-4

      CuCl2

       

      8

      Cupric hydroxide 
120427-59-2

      Cu(OH)2

       

      6.1

      Naphthenic acid, Cu-salt
1338-02-9

       
      • On combustion, forms toxic gases
       

      Ferric chloride 
7705-08-0

      FeCl3

       

      8

      Iron pentacarbonyl 
13463-40-6

      C5FeO5

       

      6.1/ 3

      Lead 
7439-92-1

      Pb

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including lead oxides
      • The substance is a strong reducing agent
       

      Lead acetate 
301-04-2

      PbC4H6O4

      • The substance decomposes on heating and on burning producing toxic and corrosive fumes including lead, acetic acid 
      • Reacts violently with bromates, phosphates, carbonates, phenols 
      • Reacts with acids producing corrosive acetic acid

      6.1

      Lead chromate 
7758-97-6

      PbCrO4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including lead oxides
      • Reacts with strong oxidants, hydrogen peroxide, sodium and potassium
      • Reacts with aluminium dinitronaphthalene, iron (III) hexacyanoferrate(IV)
      • Reacts with organics at elevated temperature causing fire hazard
       

      Lead nitrate 
10099-74-8

      Pb(NO3)2

       

      5.1/ 6.1

      Lead dioxide 
1309-60-0

      PbO2

       

      5.1

      Lead(II) oxide 
1317-36-8

      PbO

      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, aluminium powder and sodium 
      • Upon heating, toxic fumes of lead compounds are formed
       

      Naphthenic acid, Pb-salt
61790-14-5

       
      • On combustion, forms toxic fumes including lead oxide
       

      Tetraethyl lead 
78-00-2

      PbC8H20

      • The substance decomposes on heating above 110 °C and under influence of light producing toxic fumes: carbon monoxide, lead 
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, acids, halogens, oils and fats causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Attacks rubber and some plastics and coatings
      • The vapour is heavier than air

      6.1

      Tetramethyl lead 
75-74-1

      PbC4H12

       

      6.1

      Lithium aluminium hydride
16853-85-3

      LiAlH4

       

      4.3

      Magnesium 
7439-95-4

      Mg

      • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air or moisture producing irritating or poisonous gases including magnesium oxide 
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants 
      • Reacts violently with many substances causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Reacts with acids or water forming flammable hydrogen gas, causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air

      4.1

      Magnesium chloride 
7786-30-3

      MgCl2

      • The substance decomposes when slowly heated to 300 °C producing chlorine
      • Dissolution in water liberates a considerable amount of heat

      5.1

      Magnesium nitrate 
10377-60-3

      Mg(NO3)2

       

      5.1

      Magnesium oxide 
1309-48-4

      MgO

      • Readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide when exposed to air 
      • Reacts vigorously with halogens and strong acids
       

      Magnesium phosphide
12057-74-8

      Mg3P2

      • Reacts with water, air moisture, acids producing highly toxic fumes of phosphine
      • Reacts with water, air moisture, violently with acids causing fire and toxic (phosphine fumes) hazard

      4.3/ 6.1

      Mercuric acetate
1600-27-7

      HgC4H6O4

      • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light producing toxic fumes of mercury or mercuric oxide

      6.1

      Mercuric bromide 
7789-47-1

      HgBr2

       

      6.1

      Mercuric chloride 
7487-94-7

      HgCl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic vapours of mercury and chloride
      • Reacts with light metals · Incompatible with formates, sulphites, hypophosphites, phosphates, sulphides, albumin, gelatin, alkalies, alkaloid salts, ammonia, lime water, antimony and arsenic, bromide, borax, carbonate, iron, copper, lead, silver salts

      6.1

      Mercuric nitrate 
10045-94-0

      Hg(NO3)2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes (mercury, nitrogen oxides), or on exposure to light 
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials 
      • Reacts with acetylene, alcohol, phosphine and sulphur to form shock-sensitive compounds 
      • Attacks most metals when in solution
      • Vigorous reaction with petroleum hydrocarbons

      6.1

      Mercuric oxide 
21908-53-2

      HgO

      • The substance decomposes on exposure to light, on heating above 500 °C, or on burning under influence of light producing highly toxic fumes including mercury and oxygen, which increases fire hazard 
      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • Reacts violently with chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, hypophosphorous acid, hydrazine hydrate, magnesium (when heated), disulphur dichloride and hydrogen trisulphide
      • Reacts explosively with acetyl nitrate, butadiene, ethanol, iodine 
(at 35 °C), chlorine, hydrocarbons, diboron tetrafluoride, hydrogen peroxide, traces of nitric acid, reducing agents 
      • Incompatible with reducing agents

      6.1

      Mercuric sulphate 
7783-35-9

      HgSO4

      • The substance decomposes on heating  or on exposure to light producing toxic fumes of mercury and sulphur oxides 
      • Reacts with water producing insoluble basic mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid 
      • Reacts violently with hydrogen chloride

      6.1

      Mercuric thiocyanate 
592-85-8

      HgC2N2S2

       

      6.1

      Mercurous chloride 
10112-91-1

      Hg2Cl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chlorine and mercury, or on exposure to sunlight producing metallic mercury and mercuric chloride 
      • Reacts with bromides, iodides, sulphates, sulphites, carbonates, alkali chlorides, hydroxides, cyanides, lead salts, silver salts, soap, sulphides, copper salts, hydrogen peroxide, lime water, iodoform, ammonia, iodine
       

      Mercury 
7439-97-6

      Hg

      • Reacts violently with acetylene, chlorine, and ammonia 
      • Attacks copper and copper alloy materials 
      • Incompatible with acetylenes and ammonia gases 
      • Toxic vapours are formed on heating

      6.1

      Phenylmercuric acetate 
62-38-4

      C8H8HgO2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic vapours of mercury

      6.1

      Phenylmercuric nitrate 
55-68-5

      C6H5HgNO3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing mercury vapours and other toxic fumes
      • Reacts with reducing agents

      6.1

      Nickel 
7440-02-0

      Ni

      • Reacts with strong oxidants 
      • Reacts violently, in powder form, with titanium powder and potassium perchlorate, and oxidants such as ammonium nitrate, causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Reacts slowly with non-oxidizing acids and more rapidly with oxidizing acids 
      • Toxic gases and vapours (such as nickel carbonyl) may be released in a fire involving nickel 
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
       

      Nickel (II) oxide 
1313-99-1

      NiO

      • Reacts violently with iodine and hydrogen sulphide causing fire and explosion hazard
       

      Nickel carbonate 
3333-67-3

      Ni2CO3

      • The substance decomposes on heating and on contact with acids producing carbon dioxide 
      • Reacts violently with aniline, hydrogen sulphide, flammable solvents, hydrazine and metal powders, especially zinc, aluminium and magnesium, causing fire and explosion hazard
       

      Nickel carbonyl 
13463-39-3

      NiC4O4

      • May explode on heating at 60 °C 
      • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air
      • The substance decomposes on heating at 180 °C on contact with acids producing highly toxic carbon monoxide 
      • Reacts violently with oxidants, acids and bromine 
      • Reacts violently with oxidants causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Oxidizes in air forming deposits which become peroxidized causing fire hazard 
      • The vapour is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

      6.1/ 3

      Nickel sulphide 
12035-72-2

      Ni3S2

      • The substance decomposes on heating to high temperatures producing sulphur oxides
       

      Nickel sulphate 
7786-81-4

      NiSO4

      • The substance decomposes on heating at 848 °C, producing toxic fumes of 
sulphur trioxide and nickel monoxide 
      • The solution in water is a weak acid
       

      Osmium tetroxide 
20816-12-0

      OsO4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing fumes of osmium 
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
      • Reacts with hydrochloric acid to form toxic chlorine gas 
      • Forms unstable compounds with alkalis

      6.1

      Platinum tetrachloride 
13454-96-1

      PtCl4

      • On combustion, forms corrosive gases such as chlorine 
      • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing toxic fumes (chlorine) 
      • Reacts with strong oxidants
       

      Hydrogen selenide 
7783-07-5

      SeH2

      • The substance decomposes on heating above 100 °C producing toxic and flammable products including selenium and hydrogen 
      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • On contact with air it emits toxic and corrosive fumes of selenium dioxide 
      • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

      2.3/ 2.1

      Selenious acid 
7783-00-8

      SeH2O3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing water and toxic fumes of selenium oxides
      • Reacts on contact with acids producing toxic gaseous hydrogen selenide
       

      Selenious acid, disodium salt
10102-18-8

      Na2SeO3

      • On contact with hot surfaces or flames this substance decomposes forming toxic gases
      • The solution in water is a medium strong base 
      • Reacts with water, strong acids causing toxic hazard

      6.1

      Selenium 
7782-49-2

      Se

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • Reacts violently with oxidants and strong acids 
      • Reacts with water at 50 °C forming flammable hydrogen and selenious acids 
      • Reacts with incandescence on gentle heating with phosphorous and metals such as nickel, zinc, sodium, potassium, platinum

      6.1

      Selenium dioxide 
7446-08-4

      SeO2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of selenium
      • The solution in water is a medium strong acid (selenious acid) 
      • Reacts with many substances giving off toxic vapours (selenium) 
      • Attacks many metals in presence of water
       

      Selenium hexafluoride 
7783-79-1

      SeF6

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic and corrosive fumes including hydrogen fluoride, fluoride and selenium

      2.3/ 8

      Selenium oxychloride 
7791-23-3

      SeOCl2

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chloride and selenium
      • The solution in water is a strong acid, it reacts violently with bases and is corrosive
      • Reacts violently with white phosphorus and potassium causing fire and explosion hazard
      • Reacts violently with metal oxides

      3/ 6.1

      Selenium trioxide 
13768-86-0

      SeO3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of selenium
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
      • The solution in water is a strong acid, it reacts violently with bases and is corrosive
      • Reacts violently with water giving off selenic acid 
      • Attacks many metals when moisture is present
       

      Silver 
7440-22-4

      Ag

      • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylene 
      • Finely divided silver and strong hydrogen peroxide solution may explode (violent decomposition to oxygen gas) 
      • Contact with ammonia may cause formation of compounds that are explosive when dry 
      • Readily reacts with diluted nitric acid, hot concentrated sulphuric acid
       

      Silver nitrate 
7761-88-8

      AgNO3

      • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylene, alcohol, phosphine and sulphur
      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes (nitrogen oxides) 
      • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials
      • Reacts with incompatible substances such as acetylene, alkalis, halides and other compounds causing fire and explosion hazard 
      • Attacks some forms of plastics, rubber and coatings 
      • The substance decomposes on contact with organic contaminants when exposed to light

      5.1

      Strontium chromate 
7789-06-2

      SrCrH2O4

      • The substance decomposes on burning producing toxic fumes 
      • Reacts violently with hydrazine
      • Incompatible with combustible, organic or other readily oxidizable materials such as paper, wood, sulphur, aluminium, plastics
       

      Tellurium 
13494-80-9

      Te

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed
      • Reacts vigorously with halogens or interhalogens causing flames hazard 
      • Reacts with zinc with incandescence
      • Lithium silicide attacks tellurium with incandescence

      6.1

      Tellurium hexafluoride 
7783-80-4

      TeF6

       

      2.3/ 8

      Thallium 
7440-28-0

      Tl

      • Reacts violently with fluorine 
      • Reacts with halogens at room temperature
      • Incompatible with strong acids, strong oxidants, and oxygen 
      • The substance forms toxic compounds on contact with moisture

      6.1

      Thallous sulphate 
7446-18-6

      Tl2 (SO4)3

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing highly toxic fumes of thallium and sulphur oxides

      6.1

      Thorium 
7440-29-1

      Th

       

      7

      Di-N-Butyltin dichloride 
683-18-1

      SnCl2C8H18

       

      6.1

      Di-N-Dibutyltin oxide 
818-08-6

      C8H18SnO

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of tin, tin oxides
      • Reacts with oxidants 
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
      • If dry, it can be charged electrostatically by swirling, pneumatic transport, pouring, etc.
       

      Dibutyltin dilaurate 
77-58-7

      SnC32H64O4

       

      6.1

      Stannic chloride 
7646-78-8

      SnCl4

      • The vapour is heavier than air 
      • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes
      • Reacts violently with water forming corrosive hydrochloric acid and tin oxide fumes 
      • Reacts with turpentine 
      • Attacks many metals, some forms of plastics, rubber and coatings 
      • Contact with alcohol and amines may cause fire and explosion hazard 
      • Reacts with moist air to form hydrochloric acid

      8

      Stannic oxide 
18282-10-5

      SnO

      • Reacts violently with chlorine trifluoride 
      • Contact with hydrogen trisulphide causes violent decomposition and ignition 
      • Violently reduced by magnesium on heating, with fire and explosion hazard
       

      Stannous chloride 
7772-99-8

      SnCl2

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants 
      • Reacts violently with bromine trifluoride, sodium and nitrates
       

      Stannous chloride dihydrate
10025-69-1

      SnCl2 ·2H2O

      • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants
      • Upon heating, toxic and corrosive fumes are formed 
      • The substance absorbs oxygen from air and forms insoluble oxychloride
       

      Stannous fluoride 
7783-47-3

      SnF2

      • Reacts with acids; hydrogen fluoride fumes may be formed 
      • Reacts violently with 
chlorine 
      • Incompatible with alkaline substances and oxidizing agents
       

      Tin oxide 
21651-19-4

      SnO

      • On heating at 300 °C in air, oxidation to stannic oxide proceeds incandescently
      • Ignites in nitrous oxide at 400 °C and incandesces when heated in sulphur dioxide
       

      Titanium tetrachloride 
7550-45-0

      TiCl4

       

      8

      Titanium trichloride 
7705-07-9

      TiCl3

       

      8

      Vanadium pentoxide 
1314-62-1

      V2O5

      • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
      • Acts as a catalyst in oxidation reactions

      6.1

      Vanadium tetrachloride 
7632-51-1

      VCl4

       

      8

      Vanadium trioxide 
1314-34-7

      V2O3

      • Ignites on heating in air 
      • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing irritating and toxic fumes (vanadium oxides)

      6.1

      Vanadyl trichloride 
7727-18-6

      VOCl3

       

      8

      Zinc 
7440-66-6

      Zn

       

      4.3/ 4.2

      Zinc chloride 
7646-85-7

      ZnCl2

       

      8

      Zinc nitrate 
7779-88-6

      Zn(NO3)2

       

      1.5

      Zinc phosphide 
1314-84-7

      Zn3P2

      • The substance decomposes on heating and on contact with acids or water producing toxic and flammable fumes of phosphorous and zinc oxides, and phosphine 
      • Reacts violently with strong oxidants causing fire hazard

      4.3/ 6.1

      Zinc stearate 
557-05-1

      ZnC36H70O4

      • The substance decomposes on heating producing acrid smoke and fumes of zinc oxide
      • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air 
      • If dry, it can be charged electrostatically by swirling, pneumatic transport, pouring, etc.
       

      The data on physical and chemical hazards are adapted from the International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) series produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), a cooperative programme of the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
The risk classification data are taken from Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, 9th edition, developed by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and published by the United Nations (1995).
In the UN risk classification, the following codes are used: 1.5 = very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard; 2.1 = flammable gas; 2.3 = toxic gas; 
3 = flammable liquid; 4.1 = flammable solid; 4.2 = substance liable to spontaneous combustion; 4.3 = substance which in contact with water emits flammable gases; 
5.1 = oxidizing substance; 6.1 = toxic; 7 = radioactive; 8 = corrosive substance.

      Table 2. Health hazards

      Chemical 
name 
CAS-Number

      Short-term 
exposure

      Long-term
exposure

      Routes of 
exposure

      Symptoms

      Target organs, routes 
of entry

      Symptoms

      Aluminium phosphide
20859-73-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
cough, dizziness, dullness, headache, 
laboured breathing, nausea, sore throat
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, convulsions, nausea, 
unconsciousness, vomiting

         

      Antimony
7440-36-0

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; heart

      Skin; lungs; resp. tract

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, fever, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, soreness of upper respiratory 
tract; See Ingestion
Redness 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, nausea, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, cardiac arrhythmias

      Resp sys; CVS; skin; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin, nose, throat, mouth; cough; dizz; head; nau, vomit, diarr; stomach cramps; insom; anor; unable to smell properly

      Antimony
trioxide 
1309-64-4

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; lungs

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, fever, nausea, sore throat, 
vomiting 
Redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, sore throat, 
vomiting, burning sensation

         

      Stibine 
7803-52-3

      Blood; kidneys; liver; CNS

       

      Inhalation

      Abdominal pain, headache, nausea, 
shortness of breath, vomiting, 
weakness, weak and irregular pulse, 
haematuria, shock

      Blood; liver; kidneys; resp. sys. 
Inh

      Head, weak; nau, abdom pain; lumbar pain, hemog, hema, hemolytic anemia; jaun; pulm irrit

      Arsenic 
7440-38-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; liver; kidneys; 
GI tract

      Skin; liver; CNS; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Chest pain, abdominal pain, cough, 
headache, weakness, giddiness 
May be absorbed, irritating 
Redness, irritating 
Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting

      Liver; kidneys; skin; lungs; lymphatic sys (lung & lymphatic cancer) 
Inh; abs; con; ing

      Ulceration of nasal septum, derm, 
GI disturbances, peri neur, resp irrit, hyperpig of skin, (carc)

      Arsenic acid,
copper salt 
10103-61-4

      Eyes; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract

      Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenic acid,
diammonium 
salt 
7784-44-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

      PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenic acid, 
disodium salt 
7778-43-0

      Eyes;skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

      PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenic acid,
magnesium 
salt 
10103-50-1

      Eyes; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

      PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenic acid, 
mono-
potassium 
salt
7784-41-0

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; mucous 
mem-
branes

      Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting

         

      Arsenic 
pentoxide 
1303-28-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver; CVS; CNS; blood

      Lungs; skin; bone marrow; CVS; CNS; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, dizziness, weakness
shortness of breath, pain in chest, 
symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
Redness, skin burns, pain
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis
Constriction in throat, vomiting, 
abdominal pain, diarrhoea, severe thirst, 
muscular cramps, shock

         

      Arsenic 
trioxide 
1327-53-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver; CVS; CNS; hemato-
poietic

      Lungs; skin; bone marrow; PNS; CNS; CVS; heart; kidneys; liver; carcinogenic; may cause birth defects

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, dizziness, headache, shortness 
of breath, weakness, pain in chest, 
symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Constriction in throat, abdominal pain, 
diarrhoea, vomiting, severe thirst, 
muscular cramps, shock

         

      Arsenious acid, copper (2+) salt (1:1)
10290-12-7

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract.; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

      Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenious 
acid, lead (II)
salt 
10031-13-7

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; GI tract; circulatory system

      Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenious 
acid, 
potassium 
salt 
10124-50-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

       

      Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, 
pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

         

      Arsenous 
trichloride 
7784-34-1

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; CVS; CNS; GI tract

      Mucous membranes; skin; liver; kidneys; PNS

      Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      Corrosive, cough, laboured breathing; See Ingestion
Corrosive, may be absorbed, redness, 
pain 
Corrosive, pain, severe deep burns
Corrosive, abdominal pain, burning 
sensation, diarrhoea, vomiting, collapse

         

      Arsine 
7784-42-1

      Lungs; blood; kidneys

       

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes

      Abdominal pain, confusion, dizziness, 
headache, nausea, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, weakness 
On contact with liquid: frostbite 
On contact with liquid: frostbite, redness

      Blood; kidneys; liver (lung & lymphatic 
cancer)
Inh; con (liq)

      Head, mal, weak, dizz; dysp; abdom, back pain; nau, vomit, bronze skin; hema; jaun; peri neur, liq: frostbite; (carc)

      Calcium 
arsenate 
7778-44-1

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

      PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness: See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

      Eyes; resp sys; liver; skin; lymphatic sysrtem; CNS; (lymphatic & lung 
cancer) 
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Weak; GI dist; peri neur, skin hyperpig, palmar planter hyperkeratoses; derm; (carc); in animals: liver damage

      Lead arsenate
7784-40-9

      Intestines; CVS

      Skin; CNS; GI tract; liver; kidneys; blood; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes

      Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, 
headache, nausea, vomiting, tightness 
of chest, constipation, excitation, 
disorientation 
Redness 
Redness

         

      Methylarsonic 
acid 
124-58-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Bone marrow; PNS; kidneys; liver

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation in throat

      Organic arsenic compounds: Skin, resp sys, kidneys, CNS, liver, GI tract, repro sys

      In animals: irrit skin, possible derm; resp. distress; diarr; kidney damage; musc tremor, sez; possible GI tract, terato, repro effects; possible liver damage

      Sodium 
arsenate 
10048-95-0

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; digestive tract; heart; liver; kidneys; CNS

      Skin; CNS; CVS; blood; liver; carcinogenic

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, sore throat; 
See Ingestion
Redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting

         

      Barium 
7440-39-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Cough, sore throat
Redness
Redness, pain

         

      Barium 
chlorate 
13477-00-4

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; various tissues and organs

      Tissues and organs

      Inhalation


Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal pain, abdominal cramps, 
burning sensation, nausea, vomiting, 
weakness, paralysis 
Redness, pain
Abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, 
blue lips or fingernails, blue skin, 
burning sensation, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
nausea, sore throat, vomiting, 
weakness, cardiac dysrhythmia

         

      Barium 
chloride 
10361-37-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; muscles

       

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal cramps, unconsciousness
Redness
Abdominal cramps, dullness, 
unconsciousness

      Heart; CNS; skin; resp sys; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin, upper resp sys; skin burns, gastroenteritis; musc spasm; slow pulse, extrasystoles; hypokalaemia

      Barium 
chloride,
dihydrate 
10362-27-9

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; muscles

       

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal cramps, unconsciousness
Redness 
Abdominal cramps, dullness, 
unconsciousness

         

      Barium oxide 
1304-28-5

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; muscles

      Lungs

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, shortness of breath, sore throat
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
nausea, vomiting, muscle paralysis, 
cardiac arrhythmia, hypertension, death

         

      Barium
peroxide 
1304-29-6

       

      Skin

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, nausea, shortness of breath, sore throat
Redness, skin burns, pain, bleaching
Redness, pain, severe deep burns
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
sore throat

         

      Barium 
sulphate 
7727-43-7

       

      Lungs

      Inhalation

      Cough

      Eyes; resp sys 
Inh; con

      Irrit eyes, nose, upper resp sys; 
benign pneumoconiosis (baritosis)

      Cadmium 
7440-43-9

      Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

      Lungs; kidneys

      Inhalation

Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, symptoms may be 
delayed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, headache, 
nausea, vomiting

      Resp sys; kidneys; prostate; blood (prostatic & lung 
cancer)
Inh; ing

      Pulm oedema, dysp, cough, tight chest, subs pain; head; chills, musc aches; nau, vomit, diarr; anos, emphy, prot, mild anaemia; (carc)

      Cadmium 
chloride 
10108-64-2

      Resp. tract; digestive tract; lungs

      Lungs; kidneys; bone; probably carcinogenic

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, symptoms 
may be delayed 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting

         

      Cadmium 
oxide 
1306-19-0

      Resp. tract; digestive tract; lungs

      Lungs; kidneys; carcinogenic

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

      Resp sys; kidneys; blood; (prostatic & lung cancer) 
Inh

      Pulm oedema, dysp, cough, tight chest, subs pain; head; chills, musc aches; nau, vomit, diarr; anos, emphy, prot, mild anaemia; (carc)

      Cadmium 
sulphide 
1306-23-6

       

      Lungs; kidneys; carcinogenic

             

      Chromium 
7440-47-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

      Skin; asthma; larynx; lungs

      Eyes
Ingestion

      Irritation 
Diarrhoea, nausea, unconsciousness, 
vomiting

      Resp sys; skin; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin; lung fib (histologic)

      Chromyl 
chloride 
14977-61-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; corrosive on ingestion

      Skin; asthma; probably carcinogenic

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath, sore throat 
Redness, skin burns, pain, blisters
Redness, pain, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain

      Eyes; skin; resp sys (lung cancer) 
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin, upper resp sys; eye, skin burns

      Lead 
chromate 
7758-97-6

      Resp. tract; may cause perforation of nasal septum

      Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; lungs

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
nausea, metallic taste 
Skin burns, ulcers, blisters
Redness 
Abdominal pain, constipation, 
convulsions, cough, diarrhoea, 
vomiting, weakness, anorexia

         

      Cobalt 
7440-48-4

       

      Skin; resp. tract; lungs; heart

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, vomiting

      Resp sys; skin 
Inh; ing; con

      Cough, dysp, wheez, decr pulm func; low-wgt; derm; diffuse nodular fib; resp hypersensitivity, asthma

      Cobalt 
chloride 
7646-79-9

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; resp. tract ; heart

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

         

      Cobalt (III) 
oxide 
1308-04-9

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; may cause asthma; lungs; possibly carcinogenic

      Inhalation

Eyes

      Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness

         

      Cobalt 
naphthenate 
61789-51-3

      Eyes; resp. tract

      Skin

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Cough, sore throat 
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain

         

      Copper 
7440-50-8

      Eyes

      Skin; lungs

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, shortness of breath, 
sore throat 
Redness 
Redness, pain
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting

      Eyes; resp sys; skin; liver; kidneys (incr risk with Wilsons disease)
Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, nose, pharynx; nasal perf; metallic taste; derm; in animals: lung, liver, kidney damage; anaemia

      Copper (I) 
oxide 
1317-39-1

      Eyes; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, metallic taste, metal fume fever
Redness 
Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

         

      Lead 
7439-92-1

       

      Nervous system; kidneys; may impair fertility; may cause retarded development of the newborn

      Inhalation
Ingestion

      Headache, nausea, abdominal spasm
Headache, nausea, sore throat, 
abdominal spasm

      Eyes; GI tract; CNS; kidneys; blood; gingival tissue 
Inh; ing; con

      Weak, lass, insom; facial pallor; pal eye, anor, low-wgt, malnut; constip, abdom pain, colic; anemia; gingival lead line; tremor; para wrist, ankles; encephalopathy; kidney disease; irrit eyes; hypotension

      Lead acetate 
301-04-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; blood; CNS; kidneys

      Blood; bone marrow; CVS; kidneys; CNS

      Inhalation

Eyes
Ingestion

      Headache, chronic but not described as 
acute; See Ingestion
Redness, pain
Abdominal cramps, constipation, 
convulsions, headache, nausea, vomiting

         

      Tetraethyl 
lead 
78-00-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS

      Skin; CNS; may cause genetic damage; may cause reproductive toxicity

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Convulsions, dizziness, headache, 
unconsciousness, vomiting, weakness
May be absorbed, redness
Pain, blurred vision 
Convulsions, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
headache, unconsciousness, vomiting, 
weakness

      CNS; CVS; kidneys; eyes 
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Insom, lass, anxiety; tremor, hyper-reflexia, spasticity; bradycardia, hypotension, hypothermia, pallor, nau, anor, low-wgt; conf, disorientation, halu, psychosis, mania, convuls, coma; eye irrit

      Lead (II) 
oxide 
1317-36-8

       

      CNS; kidneys; blood

             

      Magnesium 
7439-95-4

         

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea

         

      Magnesium 
chloride 
7786-30-3

      Eyes; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
Redness 
Diarrhoea

         

      Magnesium 
oxide 
1309-48-4

      Eyes; nose

       

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
Redness 
Diarrhoea

      Eyes; resp sys
Inh; con

      Irrit eyes, nose; metal fume fever, cough, chest pain, flu-like fever

      Magnesium 
phosphide 
12057-74-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
cough, dizziness, dullness, headache, 
laboured breathing, nausea, sore throat
Redness, pain
Redness, pain
Abdominal pain, convulsions, nausea, 
unconsciousness, vomiting

         

      Manganese 
sulphate 
10034-96-5

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Lungs; CNS; liver; kidneys; testes

      Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing 
May be absorbed, redness, burning 
sensation 
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal cramps, nausea, sore throat

         

      Mercury 
7439-97-6

      Eyes; skin; lungs; CNS

      CNS; nervous system; kidneys

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Pulmonary irritation, cough 
May be absorbed 
Irritating

      Skin; resp sys; CNS; kidneys; eyes
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin; cough, chest pain, dysp, bron pneuitis; tremor, insom, irrity, indecision, head, ftg, weak; stomatitis, salv; GI dist, anor, low-wgt; prot

      Mercuric 
acetate 
1600-27-7

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

      Skin; kidneys

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
shortness of breath, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed;
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, skin burns, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting, metallic taste

         

      Mercuric 
chloride 
7487-94-7

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

      Skin; kidneys

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, sore 
throat, symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, pain, blisters 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns
Abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, 
burning sensation, diarrhoea, nausea, 
sore throat, vomiting, metallic taste

         

      Mercuric 
nitrate 
10045-94-0

      Skin; resp. tract; eyes; kidneys

      Kidneys

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
shortness of breath, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
metallic taste

         

      Mercuric 
oxide 
21908-53-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; kidneys; CNS

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
May be absorbed, redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea

         

      Mercuric 
sulphate 
7783-35-9

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; GI tract; corrosive on ingestion

      Kidneys

      Inhalation



Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, 
weakness, symptoms may be delayed;
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, burning 
sensation, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, metallic taste

         

      Mercurous 
chloride 
10112-91-1

      Eyes

      Kidneys

      Eyes
Ingestion

      Redness
Weakness

         

      Mercury 
organoalkyl 
compound

             

      Eyes; skin; CNS; PNS; kidneys
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Pares; ataxia, dysarthria; vision, 
hearing dist; spasticity, jerking limbs; dizz; salv; lac; nau, vomit, diarr, 
constip; skin burns; emotional dist; 
kidney inj; possible terato effects

      Phenylmercuric acetate
62-38-4

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys

      Skin; CNS; possibly causes toxic effects upon human reproduction

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, weakness, symptoms of 
delayed effects

         

      Phenylmercuric nitrate
55-68-5

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys

      Skin; CNS; possibly causes toxic effects on human reproduction

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, laboured breathing, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, symptoms of delayed effects

         

      Nickel 
7440-02-0

      Eyes; resp. tract

      Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; may effect conjuctiva; possibly carcinogenic

         

      Nasal cavities; lungs; skin (lung & nasal 
cancer)
Inh; ing; con

      Sens derm, allergic asthma, pneuitis; (carc)

      Nickel (II) 
oxide 
1313-99-1

      Eyes; resp. tract

      Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; carcinogenic

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Cough 
Redness 
Redness

         

      Nickel 
carbonate 
3333-67-3

      Eyes; resp. tract

      Skin; carcinogenic; asthma

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Cough 
Redness 
Redness

         

      Nickel 
carbonyl 
13463-39-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; CNS

      Possibly carcinogenic; may cause defects on the unborn child

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Abdominal pain, blue skin, cough, 
dizziness, headache, nausea, shortness 
of breath, vomiting, symptoms may be 
delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, headache, nausea, 
vomiting

      Lungs; paranasal sinus; CNS; repro sys (lung & nasal cancer)
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Head, verti; nau, vomit, epigastric pain; subs pain; cough, hyperpnea; cyan; weak; leucyt; pneuitis; delirium; 
convuls; (carc); in animals: repro, terato effects

      Nickel 
sulphide 
12035-72-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; possibly carcinogenic

      Inhalation

      Cough, sore throat

         

      Nickel 
sulphate 
7786-81-4

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; GI tract; CNS

      Skin; asthma; possibly carcinogenic

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyess
Ingestion

      Cough, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, dizziness, headache, 
nausea, vomiting

         

      Osmium 
tetroxide 
20816-12-0

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin; kidneys

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, headache, wheezing, shortness 
of breath, visual disturbances, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness, skin burns, skin discoloration 
Blurred vision, loss of vision 
Burning sensation

      Eyes; resp sys; skin Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, resp sys; lac, vis dist; conj; head; cough, dysp; derm

      Platinium 
tetrachloride 
13454-96-1

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

       

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

      Burning sensation, cough 
Redness 
Redness

      Eyes; skin; resp sys Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, nose; cough; dysp, wheez, cyan; derm, sens skin; lymphocytosis

      Hydrogen 
selenide 
7783-07-5

      Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin; liver; spleen; kidneys

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness 
On contact with liquid: frostbite 
Redness, pain;

      Resp sys; eyes; liver Inh; con

      Irrit eyes, nose, throat; nau, vomit, diarr; metallic taste, garlic breathy; dizz, lass, ftg; liq: frostbite; in animals: pneuitis; liver damage

      Selenious acid 
7783-00-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat
May be absorbed, redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns, puffy eyelids 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
confusion, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness, low blood pressure

         

      Selenious 
acid, 
disodium salt 
10102-18-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; liver; kidneys; heart; CNS; GI tract

      teeth; bone; blood

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes

      Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
headache, hair loss, laboured breathing, 
nausea, vomiting, symptoms may be 
delayed 
Redness 
Redness

         

      Selenium 7782-49-2

      Lungs

      Skin; resp. tract; GI tract; integuments

      Inhalation



Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      Irritation of nose, cough, dizziness, 
headache, laboured breathing, nausea, 
sore throat, vomiting, weakness, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness, skin burns, pain, 
discolouration 
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Metallic taste, diarrhoea, chills, fever

      Resp sys; eyes; skin; liver; kidneys; blood; spleen 
Inh; ing; con

      Irrit eyes, skin, nose, throat; vis dist; head; chills, fever, dysp, bron; metallic taste, garlic breath, GI dist; derm, eye, skin burns; in animals: anemia; liver nec, cirr; kidney, spleen damage

      Selenium 
dioxide 
7446-08-4

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns, puffy eyelids 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
confusion, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness, low blood pressure

         

      Selenium 
hexafluoride 
7783-79-1

      Resp. tract; lungs

      Skin; CNS; liver; kidneys

      Inhalation

Skin

Eyes

      Corrosive, cough, headache, nausea, 
shortness of breath, sore throat 
Redness, pain, on contact with liquid: 
frostbite; corrosive 
Redness, pain, blurred vision;

      Resp sys
Inh

      In animals: plum irrit, edema

      Selenium 
oxychloride 
7791-23-3

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin

      Inhalation

Skin

Eyes

Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
Corrosive, may be absorbed, redness, 
pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns 
Abdominal cramps, confusion, nausea, 
sore throat, hypotension

         

      Selenium 
trioxide 
13768-86-0

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Skin; lungs

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, puffy 
eyelids 
Abdominal cramps, confusion, nausea, 
sore throat, weakness, low blood 
pressure

         

      Silver 
7740-22-4

       

      Eyes; nose; throat; skin

         

      Nasal septum; skin; eyes
Inh; ing; con

      Blue-gray eyes, nasal septum, throat, skin; irrit, ulceration skin; GI dist

      Silver nitrate 
7761-88-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Blood; skin

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing 
Redness, skin burns, pain
Redness, pain, loss of vision, severe 
deep burns 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
weakness

         

      Strontium 
chromate 
7789-06-2

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver

      Skin; lungs; blood; liver; kidneys; brain; red and white blood cells; liver; kidneys; carcinogenic

      Inhalation
Skin
Ingestion

      Cough, hoarseness 
Redness, ulcerations 
Sore throat

         

      Tellurium 
13494-80-9

      Resp. tract; CNS

      Possibly causes malformations in human 
babies

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Drowsiness, headache, garlic odour, 
nausea 
May be absorbed 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, constipation, nausea, vomiting, garlic odour of the breath

      Skin; CNS; blood 
Inh; ing; con

      Garlic breath, sweat; dry mouth, metallic taste; som; anor, nau, no sweat; derm; in animals: CNS, red blood cell effects

      Thallium 
metal 
7440-28-0

      Nervous system

      Eyes; liver; lungs; may cause birth defects

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Nausea, vomiting, loss of hair, abdominal colic, pain in legs and chest, nervousness, irritability 
May be absorbed 
May be absorbed 
Abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhoea, headache, nausea, vomiting, loss of vision

      Eyes; CNS; lungs; liver; kidneys; GI tract, body hair; resp sys
Inh; abs; ing; con

      Nau, diarr, abdom pain, vomit; ptosis, strabismus; peri neuritis, tremor; retster tight, chest pain, pulm edema; sez, chorea, psychosis; liver, kidney damage; alopecia; pares legs

      Thallous 
sulphate 
7446-18-6

      Eyes; skin; CNS; CVS; kidneys; GI tract

       

      Inhalation
Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

      See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness;
See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, convulsions, diarrhoea, headache, vomiting, weakness, delirium, tachycardia

         

      Di-N-Dibutyltin
oxide
818-08-6

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin; PNS; liver; bile duct; lymphatic system;

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

      Headache, ringing in the ears, memory 
loss, disorientation
May be absorbed, skin burns, pain 
Redness, pain

         

      Stannic 
chloride 
7646-78-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin

      Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, sore 
throat 
Redness, skin burns, blisters 
Severe deep burns 
Abdominal cramps, vomiting

         

      Stannic oxide 
18282-10-5

      Resp. tract

      Lungs

      Inhalation

      Cough

      Resp sys
Inh; con

      Stannosis (benign pneumoconiosis): dysp, decr pulm func

      Stannous
chloride
7772-99-8

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; blood

      Liver

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, shortness of breath 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

         

      Stannous chloride 
dihydrate 
10025-69-1

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; blood

      Liver

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough, shortness of breath 
Redness 
Redness pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

         

      Stannous 
fluoride 
7783-47-3

      Skin; resp. tract; eyes

      Teeth; bone

      Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
Redness 
Redness, pain, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, nausea

         

      Tin oxide 
21651-19-4

      Resp. tract

      Lungs

      Inhalation

      Cough

      Resp sys
Inh; con

      Stannosis (benign pneumoconiosis): dysp, decr pulm func

      Titanium 
dioxide 
13463-67-7

      Eyes; lungs

      Lungs

      Inhalation
Eyes

      Cough 
Redness

      Resp sys (in animals: lung tumors)
Inh

      Lung fib; (carc)

      Vanadium 
pentoxide 
1314-62-1

      Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

      Skin; lungs; tongue

      Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Burning sensation, cough, shortness of 
breath 
Redness, burning sensation 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, drowsiness, 
unconsciousness, vomiting, symptoms of 
severe systemic poisoning and death

      Resp sys; skin; eyes
Inh; con

      Irrit eyes, skin, throat; green tongue, metallic taste, eczema; cough; fine râles, wheez, bron, dysp

      Vanadium 
trioxide 
1314-34-7

      Eyes; skin; resp. tract

      Resp. tract; may effect liver and cardiac function

      Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

      Runny nose, sneezing, cough, 
diarrhoea, laboured breathing, sore 
throat, weakness, pain in chest, green 
to black tongue 
Dry skin, redness 
Redness 
Headache, vomiting, weakness

         

      Zinc chromate 
13530-65-9

       

      Skin;  resp. tract

      Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

      Cough 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting

         

      Zinc 
phosphide 
1314-84-7

      Resp. tract; lungs; liver; kidneys; heart; CNS

       

      Inhalation

Ingestion

      Cough, diarrhoea, headache, fatigue, 
nausea, vomiting 
Abdominal pain, cough, diarrhoea, 
dizziness, headache, laboured 
breathing, nausea, unconsciousness, 
vomiting, ataxia, fatigue

         

      The short-term and long-term exposure data area adapted from the International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) series produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (see notes to table 1). The abbreviations used are CNS = central nervous system; CVS = cardiovascular system; PNS = peripheral nervous system; resp. tract = respiratory tract.

      The remaining data are adapted from the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (NIOSH 1994). The following abbreviations are used:
abdom = abdominal; abnor = abnormal/abnormalities; album = albuminuria; anes = anesthesia; anor = anorexia; anos = anosmia (loss of the sense of smell); 
appre = apprehension; arrhy = arrhythmias; aspir = aspiration; asphy = asphyxia; BP = blood pressure; breath = breathing; bron = bronchitis; 
broncopneu = bronchopneumonia; bronspas = bronchospasm; BUN = blood urea nitrogen; (carc) = potential occupational carcinogen; card = cardiac; chol = cholinesterase; 
cirr = cirrhosis; CNS = central nervous system; conc = concentration; conf = confusion; conj = conjunctivitis; constip = constipation; convuls = convulsions; corn = corneal;
CVS = cardiovascular system; cyan = cyanosis; decr = decreased; depress = depressant/depression; derm = dermatitis; diarr = diarrhea; dist = disturbance; dizz = dizziness;
drow = drowsiness; dysfunc = dysfunction; dysp = dyspnea (breathing difficulty); emphy = emphysema; eosin = eosinophilia; epilep = epileptiform; epis = epistaxis 
(nosebleed); equi = equilibrium; eryt = erythema (skin redness); euph = euphoria; fail = failure; fasc = fasiculation; FEV = forced expiratory volume; fib = fibrosis; 
fibri = fibrillation; ftg = fatigue; func = function; GI = gastrointestinal; gidd = giddiness; halu = hallucinations; head = headache; hema = hematuria (blood in the urine); 
hemato = hematopoietic; hemog = hemoglobinuria; hemorr = hemorrhage; hyperpig = hyperpigmentation; hypox = hypoxemia (reduced oxygen in the blood); 
inco = incoordination; incr = increase(d); inebri = inebriation; inflamm = inflammation; inj = injury; insom = insomnia; irreg = irregularity/irregularities; irrit = irritation; 
irrty = irritability; jaun = jaundice; kera = keratitis (inflammation of the cornea); lac = lacrimation (discharge of tears); lar = laryngeal; lass = lassitude (weakness, exhaustion);
leth = lethargy (drowsiness or indifference); leucyt = leukocytosis (increased blood leukocytes); leupen = leukopenia (reduced blood leukocytes); li-head = lightheadedness; 
liq = liquid; local = localized; low-wgt = weight loss; mal = malaise (vague feeling of discomfort); malnut = malnutrition; methemo = methemoglobinemia; 
monocy = monocytosis (increased blood monocytes); molt = molten; muc memb = mucous membrane; musc = muscle; narco = narcosis; nau = nausea; nec = necrosis; 
nept = nephritis; ner = nervousness; numb = numbness; opac = opacity; palp = palpitations; para = paralysis; pares = paresthesia; perf = perforation; peri neur = peripheral neuropathy; periorb = periorbital (situated around the eye); phar = pharyngeal; photo = phtophobia (abnormal visual intolerance to); pneu = penumonia; 
pneuitis = pneumonitis; PNS = peripheral nervous system; polyneur = polyneuropathy; prot = proteinuria; pulm = pulmonary; RBC = red blood cell; repro = reproductive; 
resp = respiratory; restless = restlessness; retster = retrosternal (occurring behind the sternum); rhin = rhinorrhea (discharge of thin nasal mucus); salv = salivation; 
sens = sensitization; sez = seizure; short = shortness; sneez = sneezing; sol = solid; soln = solution; som = somnolence (sleepiness, unnatural drowsiness); subs = substernal
(occurring beneath the sternum); sweat = sweating; swell = swelling; sys = system; tacar = tachycardia; tend = tenderness; terato = teratogenic; throb = throbbing; 
tight = tightness; trachbronch = tracheobronchitis; twitch = twitching; uncon = unconsciousness; vap = vapor; venfib = ventricular fibrillation; vert = vertigo (an illusion of
movement); vesic = vesiculation; vis dist = viszal disturbance; vomit = vomiting; weak = weakness; wheez = wheezing.

      The reader is referred to the Guide to chemicals in Volume IV of this Encyclopaedia for additional information on the toxicity of related chemical substances and compounds. Calcium compounds and boron compounds, in particular, are to be found there. Specific information on biological monitoring is given in the chapter Biological monitoring.

       

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