Strain in Health Care Work

Wednesday, 02 March 2011 15:23

Strain in Health Care Work

font size decrease font size increase font size
Print
Email

Rate this item

(0 votes)

Cognitive Strain

Continuous observation has revealed that nurses’ workdays are characterized by continual reorganization of their work schedules and frequent interruptions.

Belgian (Malchaire 1992) and French (Gadbois et al. 1992; Estryn-Béhar and Fouillot 1990b) studies have revealed that nurses perform 120 to 323 separate tasks during their workday (see table 1). Work interruptions are very frequent throughout the day, ranging from 28 to 78 per workday. Many of the units studied were large, short-term-stay units in which the nurses’ work consisted of a long series of spatially dispersed, short-duration tasks. Planning of work schedules was complicated by the presence of incessant technical innovation, close interdependence of the work of the various staff members and a generally haphazard approach to work organization.

Table 1. Number of separate tasks undertaken by nurses, and interruptions during each shift

	Belgium	France	France
Authors	Malchaire 1992^*	Gadbois et al. 1992^**	Estryn-Béhar and Fouillot 1990b^***
Departments	Cardiovascular surgery	Surgery (S) and medicine (M)	Ten medical and surgical departments
Number of separate tasks	Morning 120/8 h Afternoon 213/8 h Night 306/8 h	S (day) 276/12 h M (day) 300/12 h	Morning 323/8 h Afternoon 282/8 h Night 250/10–12 h
Number of interruptions		S (day) 36/12 h M (day) 60/12 h	Morning 78/8 h Afternoon 47/8 h Night 28/10–12 h

Number of hours of observation: * Morning: 80 h; afternoon: 80 h; night: 110 h. ** Surgery: 238 h; medicine: 220 h. *** Morning : 64 h; afternoon: 80 h; night: 90 h.

Gadbois et al. (1992) observed an average of 40 interruptions per workday, of which 5% were caused by patients, 40% by inadequate transmission of information, 15% by telephone calls and 25% by equipment. Ollagnier and Lamarche (1993) systematically observed nurses in a Swiss hospital and observed 8 to 32 interruptions per day, depending on the ward. On average, these interruptions represented 7.8% of the workday.

Work interruptions such as these, caused by inappropriate information supply and transmission structures, prevent workers from completing all their tasks and lead to worker dissatisfaction. The most serious consequence of this organizational deficiency is the reduction of time spent with patients (see table 2). In the first three studies cited above, nurses spent at most 30% of their time with patients on average. In Czechoslovakia, where multiple-bed rooms were common, nurses needed to change rooms less frequently, and spent 47% of their shift time with patients (Hubacova, Borsky and Strelka 1992). This clearly demonstrates how architecture, staffing levels and mental strain are all interrelated.

Table 2. Distribution of nurses’ time in three studies

	Czechoslovakia	Belgium	France
Authors	Hubacova, Borsky and Strelka 1992^*	Malchaire 1992^**	Estryn-Béhar and Fouillot 1990a^***
Departments	5 medical and surgical departments	Cardiovascular surgery	10 medical and surgical departments
Average time for the main postures and total distance walked by nurses:
Per cent working hours standing and walking	76%	Morning 61% Afternoon 77% Night 58%	Morning 74% Afternoon 82% Night 66%
Including stooping, squatting, arms raised, loaded	11%		Morning 16% Afternoon 30% Night 24%
Standing flexed		Morning 11% Afternoon 9% Night 8%
Distance walked		Morning 4 km Afternoon 4 km Night 7 km	Morning 7 km Afternoon 6 km Night 5 km
Per cent working hours with patients	Three shifts: 47%	Morning 38% Afternoon 31% Night 26%	Morning 24% Afternoon 30% Night 27%

Number of observations per shift: * 74 observations on 3 shifts. ** Morning: 10 observations (8 h); afternoon: 10 observations (8 h); night: 10 observations (11 h). *** Morning: 8 observations (8 h); afternoon: 10 observations (8 h); night: 9 observations (10-12 h).

Estryn-Béhar et al. (1994) observed seven occupations and schedules in two specialized medical wards with similar spatial organization and located in the same high-rise building. While work in one ward was highly sectorized, with two teams of a nurse and a nurses’ aide attending half of the patients, there were no sectors in the other ward, and basic care for all patients was dispensed by two nurses’ aides. There were no differences in the frequency of patient-related interruptions in the two wards, but team-related interruptions were clearly more frequent in the ward without sectors (35 to 55 interruptions compared to 23 to 36 interruptions). Nurses’ aides, morning-shift nurses and afternoon-shift nurses in the non-sectorized ward suffered 50, 70 and 30% more interruptions than did their colleagues in the sectorized one.

Sectorization thus appears to reduce the number of interruptions and the fracturing of work shifts. These results were used to plan the reorganization of the ward, in collaboration with the medical and paramedical staff, so as to facilitate sectorization of the office and the preparation area. The new office space is modular and easily divided into three offices (one for physicians and one for each of the two nursing teams), each separated by sliding glass partitions and furnished with at least six seats. Installation of two counters facing each other in the common preparation area means that nurses who are interrupted during preparation can return and find their materials in the same position and state, unaffected by their colleagues’ activities.

Reorganization of work schedules and technical services

Professional activity in technical departments is much more than the mere sum of tasks associated with each test. A study conducted in several nuclear medicine departments (Favrot-Laurens 1992) revealed that nuclear medicine technicians spend very little of their time performing technical tasks. In fact, a significant part of technicians’ time was spent coordinating activity and workload at the various workstations, transmitting information and making unavoidable adjustments. These responsibilities stem from technicians’ obligation to be knowledgeable about each test and to possess essential technical and administrative information in addition to test-specific information such as time and injection site.

Information processing necessary for the delivery of care

Roquelaure, Pottier and Pottier (1992) were asked by a manufacturer of electroencephalography (EEG) equipment to simplify the use of the equipment. They responded by facilitating the reading of visual information on controls which were excessively complicated or simply unclear. As they point out, “third-generation” machines present unique difficulties, due in part to the use of visual display units packed with barely legible information. Deciphering these screens requires complex work strategies.

On the whole, however, little attention has been paid to the need to present information in a manner that facilitates rapid decision-making in health care departments. For example, the legibility of information on medicine labels still leaves much to be desired, according to one study of 240 dry oral and 364 injectable medications (Ott et al. 1991). Ideally, labels for dry oral medication administered by nurses, who are frequently interrupted and attend several patients, should have a matte surface, characters at least 2.5 mm high and comprehensive information on the medication in question. Only 36% of the 240 medications examined satisfied the first two criteria, and only 6% all three. Similarly, print smaller than 2.5 mm was used in 63% of labels on the 364 injectable medications.

In many countries where English is not spoken, machine control panels are still labelled in English. Patient-chart software is being developed in many countries. In France, this type of software development is often motivated by a desire to improve hospital management and undertaken without adequate study of the software’s compatibility with actual working procedures (Estryn-Béhar 1991). As a result, the software may actually increase the complexity of nursing, rather than reduce cognitive strain. Requiring nurses to page through multiple screens of information to obtain the information they need to fill a prescription may increase the number of errors they make and memory lapses they suffer.

While Scandinavian and North American countries have computerized much of their patient records, it must be borne in mind that hospitals in these countries benefit from a high staff-to-patient ratio, and work interruptions and constant reshuffling of priorities are therefore less problematic there. In contrast, patient-chart software designed for use in countries with lower staff-to-patient ratios must be able to easily produce summaries and facilitate reorganization of priorities.

Human error in anaesthesia

Cooper, Newbower and Kitz (1984), in their study of the factors underlying errors during anaesthesia in the United States, found equipment design to be crucial. The 538 errors studied, largely drug administration and equipment problems, were related to the distribution of activities and the systems involved. According to Cooper, better design of equipment and monitoring apparatus would lead to a 22% reduction in errors, while complementary training of anaesthesiologists, using new technologies such as anaesthesia simulators, would lead to a 25% reduction. Other recommended strategies focus on work organization, supervision and communications.

Acoustic alarms in operating theatres and intensive-care units

Several studies have shown that too many types of alarms are used in operating theatres and intensive-care units. In one study, anaesthetists identified only 33% of alarms correctly, and only two monitors had recognition rates exceeding 50% (Finley and Cohen 1991). In another study, anaesthetists and anaesthesia nurses correctly identified alarms in only 34% of cases (Loeb et al. 1990). Retrospective analysis showed that 26% of nurses’ errors were due to similarities in alarm sounds and 20% to similarities in alarm functions. Momtahan and Tansley (1989) reported that recovery-room nurses and anaesthetists correctly identified alarms in only 35% and 22% of cases respectively. In another study by Momtahan, Hétu and Tansley (1993), 18 physicians and technicians were able to identify only 10 to 15 of 26 operating-theatre alarms, while 15 intensive-care nurses were able to identify only 8 to 14 of 23 alarms used in their unit.

De Chambost (1994) studied the acoustic alarms of 22 types of machines used in an intensive-care unit in the Paris region. Only the cardiogram alarms and those of one of the two types of automated-plunger syringes were readily identified. The others were not immediately recognized and required personnel first to investigate the source of the alarm in the patient’s room and then return with the appropriate equipment. Spectral analysis of the sound emitted by eight machines revealed significant similarities and suggests the existence of a masking effect between alarms.

The unacceptably high number of unjustifiable alarms has been the object of particular criticism. O’Carroll (1986) characterized the origin and frequency of alarms in a general intensive-care unit over three weeks. Only eight of 1,455 alarms were related to a potentially fatal situation. There were many false alarms from monitors and perfusion pumps. There was little difference between the frequency of alarms during the day and night.

Similar results have been reported for alarms used in anaesthesiology. Kestin, Miller and Lockhart (1988), in a study of 50 patients and five commonly used anaesthesia monitors, reported that only 3% indicated a real risk for the patient and that 75% of alarms were unfounded (caused by patient movement, interference and mechanical problems). On average, ten alarms were triggered per patient, equivalent to one alarm every 4.5 minutes.

A common response to false alarms is simply to disable them. McIntyre (1985) reported that 57% of Canadian anaesthetists admitted deliberately inactivating an alarm. Obviously, this could lead to serious accidents.

These studies underscore the poor design of hospital alarms and the need for alarm standardization based on cognitive ergonomics. Both Kestin, Miller and Lockhart (1988) and Kerr (1985) have proposed alarm modifications that take into account risk and the expected corrective responses of hospital personnel. As de Keyser and Nyssen (1993) have shown, the prevention of human error in anaesthesia integrates different measures—technological, ergonomic, social, organizational and training.

Technology, human error, patient safety and perceived psychological strain

Rigorous analysis of the error process is very useful. Sundström-Frisk and Hellström (1995) reported that equipment deficiencies and/or human error were responsible for 57 deaths and 284 injuries in Sweden between 1977 and 1986. The authors interviewed 63 intensive-care-unit teams involved in 155 incidents (“near-accidents”) involving advanced medical equipment; most of these incidents had not been reported to authorities. Seventy typical “near-accident” scenarios were developed. Causal factors identified included inadequate technical equipment and documentation, the physical environment, procedures, staffing levels and stress. The introduction of new equipment may lead to accidents if the equipment is poorly adapted to users’ needs and is introduced in the absence of basic changes in training and work organization.

In order to cope with forgetfulness, nurses develop several strategies for remembering, anticipating and avoiding incidents. They do still occur and even when patients are unaware of errors, near-accidents cause personnel to feel guilty. The article "Case Study: Human Error and Critical Taks" deals with some aspects of the problem.

Emotional or Affective Strain

Nursing work, especially if it forces nurses to confront serious illness and death, can be a significant source of affective strain, and may lead to burn-out, which is discussed more fully elsewhere in this Encyclopaedia. Nurses’ ability to cope with this stress depends on the extent of their support network and their possibility to discuss and improve patients’ quality of life. The following section summarizes the principal findings of Leppanen and Olkinuora’s (1987) review of Finnish and Swedish studies on stress.

In Sweden, the main motivations reported by health professionals for entering their profession were the “moral calling” of the work, its usefulness and the opportunity to exercise competence. However, almost half of nurses’ aides rated their knowledge as inadequate for their work, and one-quarter of nurses, one-fifth of registered nurses, one-seventh of physicians and one-tenth of head nurses considered themselves incompetent at managing some types of patients. Incompetence in managing psychological problems was the most commonly cited problem and was particularly prevalent among nurses’ aides, although also cited by nurses and head nurses. Physicians, on the other hand, consider themselves competent in this area. The authors focus on the difficult situation of nurses’ aides, who spend more time with patients than the others but are, paradoxically, unable to inform patients about their illness or treatment.

Several studies reveal the lack of clarity in delineating responsibilities. Pöyhönen and Jokinen (1980) reported that only 20% of Helsinki nurses were always informed of their tasks and the goals of their work. In a study conducted in a paediatric ward and an institute for disabled persons, Leppanen showed that the distribution of tasks did not allow nurses enough time to plan and prepare their work, perform office work and collaborate with team members.

Responsibility in the absence of decision-making power appears to be a stress factor. Thus, 57% of operating-room nurses felt that ambiguities concerning their responsibilities aggravated their cognitive strain; 47% of surgical nurses reported being unfamiliar with some of their tasks and felt that patients’ and nurses’ conflicting expectations were a source of stress. Further, 47% reported increased stress when problems occurred and physicians were not present.

According to three European epidemiological studies, burn-out affects approximately 25% of nurses (Landau 1992; Saint-Arnaud et al. 1992; Estryn-Béhar et al. 1990) (see table 3 ). Estryn-Béhar et al. studied 1,505 female health care workers, using a cognitive strain index that integrates information on work interruptions and reorganization and an affective strain index that integrates information on work ambience, teamwork, congruity of qualification and work, time spent talking to patients and the frequency of hesitant or uncertain responses to patients. Burn-out was observed in 12% of nurses with low, 25% of those with moderate and 39% of those with high cognitive strain. The relationship between burn-out and affective strain increases was even stronger: burn-out was observed in 16% of nurses with low, 25% of those with moderate and 64% of those with high affective strain. After adjustment by logistic multivariate regression analysis for social and demographic factors, women with a high affective strain index had an odds ratio for burn-out of 6.88 compared to those with a low index.

Table 3. Cognitive and affective strain and burn-out among health workers

	Germany^*	Canada^**	France^***
Number of subjects	24	868	1,505
Method	Maslach Burn-out Inventory	Ilfeld Psychiatric Symptoms Index	Goldberg General Health Questionnaire
High emotional exhaustion	33%	20%	26%
Degree of burn-out, by shift	Morning 2.0; afternoon 2.3; split shift 3.4; night 3.3		Morning 25%; afternoon 25%; night 29%
Percentage suffering high emotional exhaustion, by strain level		Cognitive and affective strain: low 16.5%; high 36.6%	Cognitive strain: low 12%, middle 25%, high 39% Affective strain: low 16%, middle 35%, high 64%

* Landau 1992. ** Saint Arnand et. al. 1992. *** Estryn-Béhar et al. 1990.

Saint-Arnaud et al. reported a correlation between the frequency of burn-out and the score on their composite cognitive and affective strain index. Landau’s results support these findings.

Finally, 25% of 520 nurses working in a cancer treatment centre and a general hospital in France were reported to exhibit high burn-out scores (Rodary and Gauvain-Piquard 1993). High scores were most closely associated with a lack of support. Feelings that their department did not regard them highly, take their knowledge of the patients into account or put the highest value on their patients’ quality of life were reported more frequently by nurses with high scores. Reports of being physically afraid of their patients and unable to organize their work schedule as they wished were also more frequent among these nurses. In light of these results, it is interesting to note that Katz (1983) observed a high suicide rate among nurses.

Impact of workload, autonomy and support networks

A study of 900 Canadian nurses revealed an association between workload and five indices of cognitive strain measured by the Ilfeld questionnaire: the global score, aggression, anxiety, cognitive problems and depression (Boulard 1993). Four groups were identified. Nurses with a high workload, high autonomy and good social support (11.76%) exhibited several stress-related symptoms. Nurses with a low workload, high autonomy and good social support (35.75%) exhibited the lowest stress. Nurses with high workload, little autonomy and little social support (42.09%) had a high prevalence of stress-related symptoms, while nurses with a low workload, little autonomy and little social support (10.40%) had low stress, but the authors suggest that these nurses may experience some frustration.

These results also demonstrate that autonomy and support, rather than moderating the relationship between workload and mental health, act directly on workload.

Role of head nurses

Classically, employee satisfaction with supervision has been considered to depend on the clear definition of responsibilities and on good communication and feedback. Kivimäki and Lindström (1995) administered a questionnaire to nurses in 12 wards of four medical departments and interviewed the wards’ head nurses. Wards were classified into two groups on the basis of the reported level of satisfaction with supervision (six satisfied wards and six dissatisfied wards). Scores for communication, feedback, participation in decision-making and the presence of a work climate that favours innovation were higher in “satisfied” wards. With one exception, head nurses of “satisfied” wards reported conducting at least one confidential conversation lasting one to two hours with each employee annually. In contrast, only one of the head nurses of the “dissatisfied” wards reported this behaviour.

Head nurses of the “satisfied” wards reported encouraging team members to express their opinions and ideas, discouraging team members from censuring or ridiculing nurses who made suggestions, and consistently attempting to give positive feedback to nurses expressing different or new opinions. Finally, all the head nurses in “satisfied” wards, but none of the ones in “dissatisfied” ones, emphasized their own role in creating a climate favourable to constructive criticism.

Psychological roles, relationships and organization

The structure of nurses’ affective relationships varies from team to team. A study of 1,387 nurses working regular night shifts and 1,252 nurses working regular morning or afternoon shifts revealed that shifts were extended more frequently during night shifts (Estryn-Béhar et al. 1989a). Early shift starts and late shift ends were more prevalent among night-shift nurses. Reports of a “good” or “very good” work ambience were more prevalent at night, but a “good relationship with physicians” was less prevalent. Finally, night-shift nurses reported having more time to talk to patients, although that meant that worries and uncertainties about the appropriate response to give patients, also more frequent at night, were harder to bear.

Büssing (1993) revealed that depersonalization was greater for nurses working abnormal hours.

Stress in physicians

Denial and suppression of stress are common defence mechanisms. Physicians may attempt to repress their problems by working harder, distancing themselves from their emotions or adopting the role of a martyr (Rhoads 1977; Gardner and Hall 1981; Vaillant, Sorbowale and McArthur 1972). As these barriers become more fragile and adaptive strategies break down, bouts of anguish and frustration become more and more frequent.

Valko and Clayton (1975) found that one-third of interns suffered severe and frequent episodes of emotional distress or depression, and that one-quarter of them entertained suicidal thoughts. McCue (1982) believed that a better understanding of both stress and reactions to stress would facilitate physician training and personal development and modify societal expectations. The net effect of these changes would be an improvement in care.

Avoidance behaviours may develop, often accompanied by a deterioration of interpersonal and professional relationships. At some point, the physician finally crosses the line into a frank deterioration of mental health, with symptoms which may include substance abuse, mental illness or suicide. In yet other cases, patient care may be compromised, resulting in inappropriate examinations and treatment, sexual abuse or pathological behaviour (Shapiro, Pinsker and Shale 1975).

A study of 530 physician suicides identified by the American Medical Association over a five-year period found that 40% of suicides by female physicians and less than 20% of suicides by male physicians occurred in individuals younger than 40 years (Steppacher and Mausner 1974). A Swedish study of suicide rates from 1976 to 1979 found the highest rates among some of the health professions, compared to the overall active population (Toomingas 1993). The standardized mortality ratio (SMR) for female physicians was 3.41, the highest value observed, while that for nurses was 2.13.

Unfortunately, health professionals with impaired mental health are often ignored and may even be rejected by their colleagues, who attempt to deny these tendencies in themselves (Bissel and Jones 1975). In fact, slight or moderate stress is much more prevalent among health professionals than are frank psychiatric disorders (McCue 1982). A good prognosis in these cases depends on early diagnosis and peer support (Bitker 1976).

Discussion groups

Studies on the effect of discussion groups on burn-out have been undertaken in the United States. Although positive results have been demonstrated (Jacobson and MacGrath 1983), it should be noted that these have been in institutions where there was sufficient time for regular discussions in quiet and appropriate settings (i.e., hospitals with high staff-patient ratios).

A literature review of the success of discussion groups has shown these groups to be valuable tools in wards where a high proportion of patients are left with permanent sequelae and must learn to accept modifications in their lifestyle (Estryn-Béhar 1990).

Kempe, Sauter and Lindner (1992) evaluated the merits of two support techniques for nurses near burn-out in geriatrics wards: a six-month course of 13 professional counselling sessions and a 12-month course of 35 “Balint group” sessions. The clarification and reassurance provided by the Balint group sessions were effective only if there was also significant institutional change. In the absence of such change, conflicts may even intensify and dissatisfaction increase. Despite their impending burn-out, these nurses remained very professional and sought ways of carrying on with their work. These compensatory strategies had to take into account extremely high workloads: 30% of nurses worked more than 20 hours of overtime per month, 42% had to cope with understaffing during more than two-thirds of their working hours and 83% were often left alone with unqualified personnel.

The experience of these geriatrics nurses was compared to that of nurses in oncology wards. Burnout score was high in young oncology nurses, and decreased with seniority. In contrast, burnout score among geriatrics nurses increased with seniority, attaining levels much higher than those observed in oncology nurses. This lack of decrease with seniority is due to the characteristics of the workload in geriatrics wards.

The need to act on multiple determinants

Some authors have extended their study of effective stress management to organizational factors related to affective strain.

For example, analysis of psychological and sociological factors was part of Theorell’s attempt to implement case-specific improvements in emergency, paediatric and juvenile psychiatry wards (Theorell 1993). Affective strain before and after the implementation of changes was measured through the use of questionnaires and the measurement of plasma prolactin levels, shown to mirror feelings of powerlessness in crisis situations.

Emergency-ward personnel experienced high levels of affective strain and frequently enjoyed little decisional latitude. This was attributed to their frequent confrontation with life-and-death situations, the intense concentration demanded by their work, the high number of patients they frequently attended and the impossibility of controlling the type and number of patients. On the other hand, because their contact with patients was usually short and superficial, they were exposed to less suffering.

The situation was more amenable to control in paediatric and juvenile psychiatry wards, where schedules for diagnostic procedures and therapeutic procedures were established in advance. This was reflected by a lower risk of overwork compared to emergency wards. However, personnel in these wards were confronted with children suffering from serious physical and mental disease.

Desirable organizational changes were identified through discussion groups in each ward. In emergency wards, personnel were very interested in organizational changes and recommendations concerning training and routine procedures—such as how to treat rape victims and elderly patients with no relations, how to evaluate work and what to do if a called physician doesn’t arrive—were formulated. This was followed by the implementation of concrete changes, including the creation of the position of head physician and the ensuring of the constant availability of an internist.

The personnel in juvenile psychiatry were primarily interested in personal growth. Reorganization of resources by the head physician and the county allowed one-third of the personnel to undergo psychotherapy.

In paediatrics, meetings were organized for all the personnel every 15 days. After six months, social support networks, decisional latitude and work content all had improved.

The factors identified by these detailed ergonomic, psychological and epidemiological studies are valuable indices of work organization. Studies which focus on them are quite different from in-depth studies of multi-factor interactions and instead revolve around the pragmatic characterization of specific factors.

Tintori and Estryn-Béhar (1994) identified some of these factors in 57 wards of a large hospital in the Paris region in 1993. Shift overlap of more than 10 minutes was present in 46 wards, although there was no official overlap between the night and morning shifts in 41 wards. In half the cases, these information communication sessions included nurses’ aides in all three shifts. In 12 wards, physicians participated in the morning-afternoon sessions. In the three months preceding the study, only 35 wards had held meetings to discuss patients’ prognoses, discharges and patients’ understanding of and reaction to their illnesses. In the year preceding the study, day-shift workers in 18 wards had received no training and only 16 wards had dispensed training to their night-shift workers.

Some new lounges were not used, since they were 50 to 85 metres from some of the patients’ rooms. Instead, the personnel preferred holding their informal discussions around a cup of coffee in a smaller but closer room. Physicians participated in coffee breaks in 45 day-shift wards. Nurses’ complaints of frequent work interruptions and feelings of being overwhelmed by their work are no doubt attributable in part to the dearth of seats (less than four in 42 of the 57 wards) and cramped quarters of the nursing stations, where more than nine people must spend a good part of their day.

The interaction of stress, work organization and support networks is clear in studies of the home-care unit of the hospital in Motala, Sweden (Beck-Friis, Strang and Sjöden 1991; Hasselhorn and Seidler 1993). The risk of burn-out, generally considered high in palliative care units, was not significant in these studies, which in fact revealed more occupational satisfaction than occupational stress. Turnover and work stoppages in these units were low, and personnel had a positive self-image. This was attributed to selection criteria for personnel, good teamwork, positive feedback and continuing education. Personnel and equipment costs for terminal-stage cancer hospital care are typically 167 to 350% higher than for hospital-based home care. There were more than 20 units of this type in Sweden in 1993.

Back

Read 7862 times Last modified on Tuesday, 08 November 2011 22:23

Published in Ergonomics and Health Care

More in this category: « Hospital Ergonomics: A Review Work Schedules and Night Work in Health Care »

" DISCLAIMER: The ILO does not take responsibility for content presented on this web portal that is presented in any language other than English, which is the language used for the initial production and peer-review of original content. Certain statistics have not been updated since the production of the 4th edition of the Encyclopaedia (1998)."

Health Care Facilities and Services References

Abdo, R and H Chriske. 1990. HAV-Infektionsrisiken im Krankenhaus, Altenheim und Kindertagesstätten. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Acton, W. 1848. On the advantages of caouchoue and gutta-percha in protecting the skin against the contagion of animal poisons. Lancet 12:588.

Ahlin, J. 1992. Interdisciplinary case studies in offices in Sweden. In Corporate Space and Architecture. Vol. 2. Paris: Ministére de l’équipment et du logement.

Akinori, H and O Hiroshi. 1985. Analysis of fatigue and health conditions among hospital nurses. J Science of Labour 61:517-578.

Allmeers, H, B Kirchner, H Huber, Z Chen, JW Walter, and X Baur. 1996. The latency period between exposure and the symptoms in allergy to natural latex: Suggestions for prevention. Dtsh Med Wochenschr 121 (25/26):823-828.

Alter, MJ. 1986. Susceptibility to varicella zoster virus among adults at high risk for exposure. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:448-451.

—. 1993. The detection, transmission, and outcome of hepatitis C infection. Infect Agents Dis 2:155-166.

Alter, MJ, HS Margolis, K Krawczynski, FN Judson, A Mares, WJ Alexander, PY Hu, JK Miller, MA Gerber, and RE Sampliner. 1992. The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. New Engl J Med 327:1899-1905.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 1991. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th edition. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

—. 1994. TLVs: Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for 1994-1995. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

American Hospital Association (AHA). 1992. Implementing Safer Needle Practice. Chicago, IL: AHA.

American Institute of Architects. 1984. Determining Hospital Space Requirements. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press.

American Institute of Architects Committee on Architecture for Health. 1987. Guidelines for Construction and Equipment of Hospital and Medical Facilities. Washington, DC: American Institute of Acrchitects Press.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1987. Health facilities. In ASHRAE Handbook: Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning Systems and Applications. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Anon. 1996. New drugs for HIV infection. Medical Letter of Drugs and Therapeutics 38:37.

Axelsson, G, R Rylander, and I Molin. 1989. Outcome of pregnancy in relation to irregular and inconvenient work schedules. Brit J Ind Med 46:393-398.

Beatty, J SK Ahern, and R Katz. 1977. Sleep deprivation and the vigilance of anesthesiologists during simulated surgery. In Vigilance, edited by RR Mackie. New York: Plenum Press.

Beck-Friis, B, P Strang, and PO Sjöden. 1991. Work stress and job satisfaction in hospital-based home care. Journal of Palliative Care 7(3):15-21.

Benenson, AS (ed.). 1990. Control of Communicable Disease in Man, 15th edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Bertold, H, F Hofmann, M Michaelis, D Neumann-Haefelin, G Steinert, and J Wölfle. 1994. Hepatitis C—Risiko für Beschäftigte im Gesundheitsdienst? In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 7, edited by F Hofmann, G Reschauer, and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Bertram, DA. 1988. Characteristics of shifts and second-year resident performance in an emergency department. NY State J Med 88:10-14.

Berufsgenossenschaft für Gesundheitsdienst und Wohlfahrtspflege (BGW). 1994. Geschäftsbericht.

Bissel, L and R Jones. 1975. Disabled doctors ignored by peers. Presented at the American Medical Association Conference on the Imparied Physician, 11 April, San Francisco, CA.

Bitker, TE. 1976. Reaching out to the depressed physician. JAMA 236(15):1713-1716.

Blanchard, M, MM Cantel, M Faivre, J Girot, JP Ramette, D Thely, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1992. Incidence des rythmes biologiques sur le travail de nuit. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital, edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. Toulouse: Edition Octares.

Blanpain, C and M Estryn-Béhar. 1990. Measures d’ambiance physique dans dix services hospitaliers. Performances 45:18-33.

Blaycock, B. 1995. Latex allergies: Overview, prevention and implications for nursing care. Ostomy Wound Manage 41(5):10-12,14-15.

Blazer, MJ, FJ Hickman, JJ Farmer, and DJ Brenner. 1980. Salmonella typhi: The laboratory as a reservoir of infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 142:934-938.

Blow, RJ and MIV Jayson. 1988. Back pain. In Fitness for Work: The Medical Approach, edited by FC Edwards, RL McCallum, and PJ Taylor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boehm, G and E Bollinger. 1990. Significance of environmental factors on the tolerated enteral feeding volumes for patients in neonatal intensive care units. Kinderarzliche Praxis 58(6):275-279.

Bongers, P, RD Winter, MAJ Kompier, and VV Hildebrandt. 1992. Psychosocial Factors at Work and Musculoskeletal Diseases. Review of the literature. Leiden, Netherlands: TNO.

Bouhnik, C, M Estryn-Béhar, B Kapitaniak, M Rocher, and P Pereau. 1989. Le roulage dans les établissements de soins. Document pour le médecin du travail. INRS 39:243-252.

Boulard, R. 1993. Les indices de santé mentale du personnel infirmier: l’impact de la charge de travail, de l’autonomie et du soutien social. In La psychologie du travail à l’aube du XXI° siècle. Actes du 7° Congrès de psychologie du travail de langue française. Issy-les-Moulineaux: Editions EAP.

Breakwell, GM. 1989. Facing Physical Violence. London: British Psychological Society.

Bruce, DL and MJ Bach. 1976. Effects of Trace Concentrations of Anesthetic Gases on Behavioral Performance of Operating Room Personnel. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 76-169. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, HW Linde, and JE Eckenhoff. 1968. Causes of death among anesthesiologists: A 20 years survey. Anesthesiology 29:565-569.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, NJ Smith, F Seltzer, and MH Dykes. 1974. A prospective survey of anesthesiologists’ mortality, 1967-1974. Anesthesiology 41:71-74.

Burhill, D, DA Enarson, EA Allen, and S Grzybowski. 1985. Tuberculosis in female nurses in British Columbia. Can Med Assoc J 132:137.

Burke, FJ, MA Wilson, and JF McCord. 1995. Allergy to latex gloves in clinical practice: Case reports. Quintessence Int 26(12):859-863.

Buring, JE, CH Hennekens, SL Mayrent, B Rosner, ER Greenberg, and T Colton. 1985. Health experiences of operating room personnel. Anesthesiology 62: 325-330.

Burton, R. 1990. St. Mary’s Hospital, Isle of Wight: A suitable background for caring. Brit Med J 301:1423-1425.

Büssing, A. 1993. Stress and burnout in nursing: Studies in different work structures and work schedules. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Cabal, C, D Faucon, H Delbart, F Cabal, and G Malot. 1986. Construction d’une blanchisserie industrielle aux CHU de Saint-Etienne. Arch Mal Prof 48(5):393-394.

Callan, JR, RT Kelly, ML Quinn, JW Gwynne, RA Moore, FA Muckler, J Kasumovic, WM Saunders, RP Lepage, E Chin, I Schoenfeld, and DI Serig. 1995. Human Factors Evaluation of Remote Afterloading Brachytherapy. NUREG/CR-6125. Vol. 1. Washington, DC: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Cammock, R. 1981. Primary Health Care Buildings: Briefing and Design Guide for Architects and Their Clients. London: Architectural Press.

Cardo, D, P Srivastava, C Ciesielski, R Marcus, P McKibben, D Culver, and D Bell. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood (abstract). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 suppl:20.

Carillo, T, C Blanco, J Quiralte, R Castillo, M Cuevas, and F Rodriguez de Castro. 1995. Prevalence of latex allergy among greenhouse workers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 96(5/1):699-701.

Catananti, C and A Cambieri. 1990. Igiene e Tecnica Ospedaliera (Hospital Hygiene and Organization). Roma: II Pensiero Scientifico Editore.

Catananti, C, G Damiani, G Capelli, and G Manara. 1993. Building design and selection of materials and furnishings in the hospital: A review of international guidelines. In Indoor Air ’93, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate 2:641-646.

Catananti, C, G Capelli, G Damiani, M Volpe, and GC Vanini. 1994. Multiple criteria evaluation in planning selection of materials for health care facilities. Preliminary identification of criteria and variables. In Healthy Buildings ’94, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference 1:103-108.

Cats-Baril, WL and JW Frymoyer. 1991. The economics of spinal disorders. In The Adult Spine, edited by JW Frymoyer. New York: Raven Press.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1982. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for clinical laboratory staffs. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 31:577-580.

—. 1983. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for health-care workers and allied professionals. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 32:450-451.

—. 1987a. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in health-care workers exposed to blood of infected patients. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36:285-289.

—. 1987b. Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36 suppl 2:3S-18S.

—. 1988a. Universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37:377-382,387-388.

—. 1988b. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37 suppl 6:1-37.

—. 1989. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 38 suppl 6.

—. 1990. Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding post-exposure use. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 39 (No. RR-1).

—. 1991a. Hepatitis B virus: A comprehensive strategy for eliminating transmission in the United States through universal childhood vaccination: Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-13).

—. 1991b. Recommendations for preventing transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to patients during exposure-prone invasive procedures. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-8).

—. 1993a. Recommended infection-control practices in dentistry. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 42 (No. RR-8):1-12.

—. 1993b. Biosafety in Microbial and Biomedical Laboratories, 3rd edition. DHHS (CDC) Publication No. 93-8395. Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994b. HIV/AIDS Prevention Newsletter. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994c. Human immunodeficiency virus in household settings—United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43:347-356.

—. 1994d. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 6(1). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994e. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43 (No. RR-13):5-50.

—. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood—France, United Kingdom, and United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 44:929-933.

—. 1996a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol 8(2). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1996b. Update: Provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIV. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 45:468-472.

Charney, W (ed.). 1994. Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Chou, T, D Weil, and P Arnmow. 1986. Prevalence of measles antibodies in hospital personnel. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:309-311.

Chriske, H and A Rossa. 1991. Hepatitis-C-Infektionsgefährdung des medizinischen Personals. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Clark, DC, E Salazar-Gruesco, P Grabler, J Fawcett. 1984. Predictors of depression during the first 6 months of internship. Am J Psychiatry 141:1095-1098.

Clemens, R, F Hofmann, H Berthold, and G Steinert. 1992. Prävalenz von Hepatitis, A, B und C bei Bewohern einer Einrichtung für geistig Behinderte. Sozialpädiatrie 14:357-364.

Cohen, EN. 1980. Anasthetic Exposure in the Workplace. Littleton, MA: PSG Publishing Co.

Cohen, EN, JW Bellville, and BW Brown, Jr. 1971. Anesthesia, pregnancy and miscarriage: A study of operating room nurses and anesthetists. Anesthesiology 35:343-347.

—. 1974. Occupational disease among operating room personnel: A national study. Anesthesiology 41:321-340.

—. 1975. A survey of anethestic health hazards among dentists. J Am Dent Assoc 90:1291-1296.

Commission of the European Communities. 1990. Recommendation of the Commission February 21, 1990, about Protection of People against Exposure to Radon in Indoor Environments. 90/143/Euratom (Italian Translation).

Cooper, JB. 1984. Toward prevention of anesthesic mishaps. International Anesthesiology Clinics 22:167-183.

Cooper, JB, RS Newbower, and RJ Kitz. 1984. An analysis of major errors and equipment failures in anesthesia management: Considerations for prevention and detection. Anesthesiology 60(1):34-42.

Costa, G, R Trinco, and G Schallenberg. 1992. Problems of thermal comfort in an operating room equipped with laminar air flow system In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar M, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Cristofari, M-F, M Estryn-Béhar, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1989. Le travail des femmes à l’hôpital. Informations Hospitalières 22/23:48-62.

Council of the European Communities. 1988. Directive December 21, 1988, to Draw Near the Laws of Member Countries about Building Products. 89/106/EEC (Italian translation).

de Chambost, M. 1994. Alarmes sonnantes, soignantes trébuchantes. Objectif soins 26:63-68.

de Keyser, V and AS Nyssen. 1993. Les erreurs humaines en anesthésies. Le Travail humain 56(2/3):243-266.

Decree of the President of Ministers Council. 1986. Directive to the Regions about Private Health Care Facilities Requirements. 27 June.

Dehlin, O, S Berg, GBS Andersson, and G Grimby. 1981. Effect of physical training and ergonomic counselling on the psychosocial perception of work and on the subjective assesment of low-back insuffuciency. Scand J Rehab 13:1-9.

Delaporte, MF, M Estryn-Béhar, G Brucker, E Peigne, and A Pelletier. 1990. Pathologie dermatologique et exercice professionnel en milieu hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 51(2):83-88.

Denisco, RA, JN Drummond, and JS Gravenstein. 1987. The effect of fatigue on the performance of a simulated anesthetic monitoring task. J Clin Monit 3:22-24.

Devienne, A, D Léger, M Paillard, A Dômont. 1995. Troubles du sommeil et de la vigilance chez des généralistes de garde en région parisienne. Arch Mal Prof 56(5):407-409.

Donovan, R, PA Kurzman, and C Rotman. 1993. Improving the lives of home care workers: A partnership of social work and labor. Soc Work 38(5):579-585..

Edling, C. 1980. Anesthetic gases as an occupational hazard. A review. Scand J Work Environ Health 6:85-93.

Ehrengut, W and T Klett. 1981. Rötelnimmunstatus von Schwesternschülerinnen in Hamberger Krankenhäusern im Jahre 1979. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkdunde 129:464-466.

Elias, J, D Wylie, A Yassi, and N Tran. 1993. Eliminating worker exposure to ethylene oxide from hospital sterilizers: An evaluation of cost and effectiveness of an isolation system. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 8(8):687-692.

Engels, J, TH Senden, and K Hertog. 1993. Working postures of nurses in nursing homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Englade J, E Badet and G Becque. 1994. Vigilance et qualité de sommeil des soignants de nuit. Revue de l’infirmière 17:37-48.

Ernst, E and V Fialka. 1994. Idiopathic low back pain: Present impact, future directions. European Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 4:69-72.

Escribà Agüir, V. 1992. Nurses’ attitudes towards shiftwork and quality of life, Scand J Soc Med 20(2):115-118.

Escribà Agüir V, S Pérez, F Bolumar, and F Lert. 1992. Retentissement des horaires de travail sur le sommeil des infirmiers. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Estryn-Béhar, M. 1990. Les groupes de parole: Une stratégie d’amélioration des relations avec les malades. Le concours médical 112(8):713-717.

—. 1991. Guide des risques professionnels du personnel des services de soins. Paris: Editions Lamarre.

Estryn-Béhar, M and N Bonnet. 1992. Le travail de nuit à l’hôpital. Quelques constats à mieux prendre en compte. Arch Mal Prof 54(8):709-719.

Estryn-Béhar, M and F Fonchain. 1986. Les troubles du sommeil du personnel hospitalier effectuant un travail de nuit en continu. Arch Mal Prof 47(3):167-172;47(4):241.

Estryn-Béhar, M and JP Fouillot. 1990a. Etude de la charge physique du personnel soignant, Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS: 27-33.

—. 1990b. Etude de la charge mentale et approche de la charge psychique du personnel soignant. Analyse du travail des infirmières et aides-soignantes dans 10 services de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail INRS 42:131-144.

Estryn-Béhar, M and C Hakim-Serfaty. 1990. Organisation de l’espace hospitalier. Techn hosp 542:55-63.

Estryn-Béhar, M and G Milanini. 1992. Concevoir les espaces de travail en services de soins. Technique Hospitalière 557:23-27.

Estryn-Béhar, M and H Poinsignon. 1989. Travailler à l’hopital. Paris: Berger Levrault.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, and E Vaichere. 1978. Effets du travail de nuit en équipes fixes sur une population féminine. Résultats d’une enquête dans le secteur hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 39(9):531-535.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, E Peigné, A Masson, and V Le Gall. 1989b. Impact of nightshifts on male and female hospital staff, in Shiftwork: Health and Performance, edited by G Costa, G Cesana, K Kogi, and A Wedderburn. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Night and Shift Work. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1990. Strenuous working conditions and musculoskeletal disorders among female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 62:47-57.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, M Franc, S Fermand, and F Gerstle F. 1978. Grossesse er conditions de travail en milieu hospitalier. Revue franç gynec 73(10) 625-631.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, E Peigné, N Bonnet, E Vaichère, C Gozlan, S Azoulay, and M Giorgi. 1990. Stress at work and mental health status. Br J Ind Med 47:20-28.

Estryn-Béhar, M, B Kapitaniak, MC Paoli, E Peigné, and A Masson. 1992. Aptitude for physical exercise in a population of female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 64:131-139.

Estryn Béhar, M, G Milanini, T Bitot, M Baudet, and MC Rostaing. 1994. La sectorisation des soins: Une organisation, un espace. Gestion hospitalière 338:552-569.

Estryn-Béhar, M, G Milanini, MM Cantel, P Poirier, P Abriou, and the ICU’s study group. 1995a. Interest of participative ergonomic methodology to improve an intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

—. 1995b. Participative ergonomic methodology for the new fitting out of a cardiologic intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Estryn-Béhar, M, E Peigné, A Masson, C Girier-Desportes, JJ Guay, D Saurel, JC Pichenot, and J Cavaré. 1989a. Les femmes travaillant à l’hôpital aux différents horaires, qui sont-elles? Que décrivent-elles comme conditions de travail? Que souhaitent-elles? Arch Mal Prof 50(6):622-628.

Falk, SA and NF Woods. 1973. Hospital noise-levels and potential health hazards, New England J Med 289:774-781.

Fanger, PO. 1973. Assessment of man’s thermal comfort in practice. Br J Ind Med 30:313-324.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in SBS, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Favrot-Laurens. 1992. Advanced technologies and work organization of hospital teams. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Koppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Ferstandig, LL. 1978. Trace concentrations of anesthetic gases: A critical review of their disease potential. Anesth Analg 57:328-345.

Finley, GA and AJ Cohen. 1991. Percieved urgency and the anaesthetist: Responses to common operating room monitor alarms. Can J Anaesth 38(8):958-964

Ford, CV and DK Wentz. 1984. The internship year: A study of sleep, mood states, and psychophysiologic parameters. South Med J 77:1435-1442.

Friedman, RC, DS Kornfeld, and TJ Bigger. 1971. Psychological problems associated with sleep deprivation in interns. Journal of Medical Education 48:436-441.

Friele, RD and JJ Knibbe. 1993. Monitoring the barriers with the use of patient lifts in home care as perceived by nursing personnel. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. LandsbergLech: Ecomed Verlag.

Gadbois, CH. 1981. Aides-soignantes et infirmières de nuit. In Conditions de travail et vie quotidienne. Montrougs: Agence Nationale pour l’Amélioration des Conditions de Travail.

Gadbois, C, P Bourgeois, MM Goeh-Akue-Gad, J Guillaume, and MA Urbain. 1992. Contraintes temporelles et structure de l’espace dans le processus de travail des équipes de soins. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Games, WP, and W Tatton-Braen. 1987. Hospitals Design and Development. London: Architectural Press.

Gardner, ER and RC Hall. 1981. The professional stress syndrome. Psychosomatics 22:672-680.

Gaube, J, H Feucht, R Laufs, D Polywka, E Fingscheidt, and HE Müller. 1993. Hepatitis A, B und C als desmoterische Infecktionen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 55:246-249.

Gerberding, JL. N.d. Open trial of Zidovudine Postexposure-chemoprophylaxis in Health Care Workers with Occupational Exposures to Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Skript SFGH.

—. 1995. Management of occupational exposures to blood-borne viruses. New Engl J Med 332:444-451.

Ginesta, J. 1989. Gases anestésicos. In Riesgos del Trabajo del Personal Sanitario, edited by JJ Gestal. Madrid: Editorial Interamericana McGraw-Hill.

Gold, DR, S Rogacz, N Bock, TD Tosteson, TM Baum, FE Speizer, and CA Czeiler. 1992. Rotating shift work, sleep and accidents related to sleepiness in hospital nurses. Am J Public Health 82(7):1011-1014.

Goldman, LI, MT McDonough, and GP Rosemond. 1972. Stresses affecting surgical performance and learning: Correlation of heart rate, electrocardiogram, and operation simultaneously recorded on videotapes. J Surg Res 12:83-86.

Graham, C, C Hawkins, and W Blau. 1983. Innovative social work practice in health care: Stress management. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Green, A. 1992. How nurses can ensure the sounds patients hear have a positive rather than negative effect upon recovery and quality of life. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing Journal 8(4):245-248.

Griffin, WV. 1995. Social worker and agency safety. In Encyclopaedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Grob, PJ. 1987. Cluster of hepatitis B transmission by a physician. Lancet 339:1218-1220.

Guardino, X and MG Rosell. 1985. Exposicion laboral a gases anestésicos. In Notas Técnicas de Prevención. No. 141. Barcelona: INSHT.

—. 1992. Exposure at work to anesthetic gases. A controlled risk? Janus 12:8-10.

—. 1995. Exposure monitoring to anesthetic gases. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagburg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1993. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1995. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Haigh, R. 1992. The application of ergonomics to the design of workplace in health care buildings in the U.K. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Halm, MA and MA Alpen, 1993. The impact of technology on patient and families. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):443-457.

Harber, P, L Pena, and P Hsu. 1994. Personal history, training, and worksite as predictors of back pain of nurses. Am J Ind Med 25:519-526.

Hasselhorn, HM. 1994. Antiretrovirale prophylaxe nach kontakt mit HIV-jontaminierten. In Flüssigkeiten in Infektiologie, edited by F Hofmann. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hasselhorn, HM and E Seidler.1993. Terminal care in Sweden—New aspects of the professional care of dying. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel U, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Heptonstall, J, K Porter, and N Gill. 1993. Occupational Transmission of HIV: Summary of Published Reports. London: Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre AIDS Centre.

Hesse, A, Lacher A, HU Koch, J Kublosch, V Ghane, and KF Peters. 1996. Update on the latex allergy topic. Hauzarzt 47(11):817-824.

Ho, DD, T Moudgil, and M Alam. 1989. Quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the blood of infected persons. New Engl J Med 321:1621-1625.

Hodge, B and JF Thompson. 1990. Noise pollution in the operating theatre. Lancet 335:891-894.

Hofmann, F and H Berthold. 1989. Zur Hepatitis-B-Gefährdung des Krankenhauspersonals-Möglichkeiten der prae-und postexpositionellen Prophylaxe. Medizinische Welt 40:1294-1301.

Hofmann, F and U Stössel. 1995. Environmental health in the health care professions: Biological, physical, psychic, and social health hazards. Reviews on Environmental Health 11:41-55.

Hofmann, F, H Berthold, and G Wehrle. 1992. Immunity to hepatitis A in hospital personnel. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 11(12):1195.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, and J Klima. 1994. Low back pain in nurses (I). European Journal of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 4:94-99.

Hofmann, F, B Sydow, and M Michaelis. 1994a. Mumps—berufliche Gefährdung und Aspekte der epidemiologischen Entwicklung. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:453-455.

—. 1994b. Zur epidemiologischen Bedeutung der Varizellen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:599-601.

Hofmann, F, G Wehrle, K Berthold, and D Köster. 1992. Hepatitis A as an occupational hazard. Vaccine 10 suppl 1:82-84.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, M Michaelis, and A Siegel. 1993. Tuberculosis—Occupational risk for health care workers? In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, A Siegel, and U Stössel. 1994. Wirbelsäulenerkrankungen im Pflegeberuf. Medizinische Grundlagen und Prävention. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, M Nübling, and FW Tiller. 1995. European Hepatitis—A Study. Publikation in Vorereitung.

Hofmann, H and C Kunz. 1990. Low risk of health care workers for infection with hepatitis-C virus. Infection 18:286-288.

Holbrook, TL, K Grazier, JL Kelsey, and RN Stauffer. 1984. The Frequency of Occurrence, Impact, and Cost of Selected Musculoskeletal Conditions in the United States. Park Ridge, Il: American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.

Hollinger, FB. 1990. Hepatitis B virus. In Virology, edited by BN Fiedles and DM Knipe. New York: Raven Press.

Hopps, J and P Collins. 1995. Social work profession overview. In Encyclopedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Hubacova, L, I Borsky, and F Strelka. 1992. Work physiology problems of nurses working in inpatients departments. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Hunt, LW, AF Fransway, CE Reed, LK Miller, RT Jones, MC Swanson, and JW Yunginger. 1995. An epidemic of occupational allergy to latex involving health care workers. J Occup Environ Med 37(10):1204-1209.

Jacobson, SF and HK MacGrath. 1983. Nurses under Stress. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Jacques, CHM, MS Lynch and JS Samkoff. 1990. The effects of sleep loss on cognitive performance of resident physicians. J Fam Pract 30:223-229.

Jagger, J, EH Hunt, J Brand-Elnagger, and RD Pearson. 1988. Rates of needle-stick injury caused by various devices in a university hospital. New Engl J Med 319:284-288.

Johnson, JA, RM Buchan, and J S Reif. 1987. Effect of waste anesthetic gas and vapor exposure on reproductive outcome in veterinary personnel. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 48(1):62-66.

Jonasson, G, JO Holm, and J Leegard. Rubber allergy: An increasing health problem? Tuidsskr Nor Laegeforen 113(11):1366-1367.

Kandolin, I. 1993. Burnout of female and male nurses in shiftwork. Ergonomics 36(1/3):141-147.

Kaplan, RM and RA Deyo. 1988. Back pain in health care workers. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus.

Katz, R. 1983. Causes of death among nurses. Occup Med 45:760-762.

Kempe, P, M Sauter and I Lindner. 1992. Special characteristics of nurses for the aged who made use of a training program aimed to reduce burn-out symptoms and first results on treatment outcome. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Kerr, JH. 1985. Warning devices. Br J Anaesth 57:696-708.

Kestin, IG, RB Miller, and CJ Lockhart. 1988. Auditory alarms during anesthesia monitoring. Anesthesiology 69(1):106-109.

Kinloch-de-los, S, BJ Hirschel, B Hoen, DA Cooper, B Tindall, A Carr, H Sauret, N Clumeck, A Lazzarin, and E Mathiesen. 1995. A controlled trial of Zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. New Engl J Med 333:408-413.

Kivimäki, M and K Lindström. 1995. The crucial role of the head nurse in a hospital ward. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Klaber Moffet, JA, SM Chase, I Portek, and JR Ennis. 1986. A controlled study to evaluate the efectiveness of the back pain school in the relief of chronic low back pain. Spine 11:120-122.

Kleczkowski, BM, C Montoya-Aguilar, and NO Nilsson. 1985. Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas. Vol. 5. Geneva: WHO.

Klein, BR and AJ Platt. 1989. Health Care Facility Planning and Construction. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Kelin, R, K Freemann, P Taylor, C Stevens. 1991. Occupational risk for hepatits C virus infection among New York City dentists. Lancet 338:1539-1542.

Kraus, H. 1970. Clinical Treatment of Back and Neck Pain. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kujala, VM and KE Reilula. 1995. Glove-induced dermal and respiratory symptoms among health care workers in one Finnish hospital. Am J Ind Med 28(1):89-98.

Kurumatani, N, S Koda, S Nakagiri, K Sakai, Y Saito, H Aoyama, M Dejima, and T Moriyama. 1994. The effects of frequently rotating shiftwork on sleep and the family life of hospital nurses. Ergonomics 37:995-1007.

Lagerlöf, E and E Broberg. 1989. Occupational injuries and diseases. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lahaye, D, P Jacques, G Moens, and B Viaene. 1993. The registration of medical data obtained by preventive medical examinations on health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, F, U Stössel and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lampher, BP, CC Linneman, CG Cannon, MM DeRonde, L Pendy, and LM Kerley. 1994. Hepatitis C virus infection in health care workers: Risk of exposure and infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15:745-750.

Landau, C, S Hall, SA Wartman, and MB Macko. 1986. Stress in social and family relationships during medical residency. Journal of Medical Education 61:654-660.

Landau, K. 1992. Psycho-physical strain and the burn-out phenomen amongst health care professionals. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Landewe, MBM and HT Schröer. 1993. Development of a new, integrated patient transfer training program—Primary prevention of low back pain. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, editeb by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lange, M. 1931. Die Muskelhärten (Myogelosen). Munich: JF Lehman Verlag.

Lange, W and KN Masihi. 1986. Durchseuchung mit Hepatitis-A- und B-Virus bei medizinischem Personal. Bundesgesundheitsol 29;183-87.

Lee, KA. 1992. Self-reported sleep disturbances in employed women. Sleep15(6):493-498.

Lempereur, JJ. 1992. Prévention des dorso-lombalgies. Influence du vêtement de travail sur le comportement gestuel. Spécifications ergonomiques. Cah Kinésither 156,:4.

Leppanen, RA and MA Olkinuora. 1987. Psychological stress experienced by health care personnel. Scand J Work Environ Health 13:1-8.

Lert, F, MJ Marne, and A Gueguen. 1993. Evolution des conditions de travail des infirmières des hôpitaux publics de 1980 à 1990. Revue de l’Epidémiologie et de santé publique 41:16-29.

Leslie, PJ, JA Williams, C McKenna, G Smith and RC Heading. 1990. Hours, volume, and type of work of preregistration house officers. Brit Med J 300:1038-1041.

Lettau, LA, HJ Alfred, RH Glew, HA Fields, MJ Alter, R Meyer, SC Hadler, and JE Maynard. 1986. Nosocomial transmission of delta hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 104:631-635.

Levin, H. 1992. Healthy buildings—Where do we stand, where do we go? In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality: State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Lewittes, LR and VW Marshall. 1989. Fatigue and concerns about quality of care among Ontario interns and residents. Can Med Assoc J 140:21-24.

Lewy, R. 1990. Employees at Risk: Protection and Health of Health Care Workers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Lindström, A and M Zachrisson. 1973. Ryggbesvär och arbetssoförmaga Ryyggskolan. Ett Försok till mer rationeli fysikalist terapi. Socialmet T 7:419-422.

Lippert. 1971. Travel in nursing units. Human Factors 13(3):269-282.

Ljungberg, AS, A Kilbom, and MH Goran. 1989. Occupational lifting by nursing aides and warehouse workers. Ergonomics 32:59-78.

Llewelyn-Davies, R and J Wecks. 1979. In-patient areas. In Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas, edited by BM Kleczkowski and R Piboleau. Geneva: WHO.

Loeb, RG, BR Jones, KH Behrman, and RJ Leonard. 1990. Anesthetists cannot identify audible alarms. Anesthesiology 73(3A):538.

Lotas, MJ. 1992. Effects of light and sound in the neonatal intensive care unit environment on the low-birth-weight infant. NAACOGS Clinical Issues in Perinatal & Womens Health Nursing 3(1):34-44.

Lurie, HE, B Rank, C Parenti, T Wooley, and W Snoke. 1989. How do house officers spend their nights? A time study of internal medicine house staff on call. New Engl J Med 320:1673-1677.

Luttman, A, M Jäger, J Sökeland, and W Laurig. 1996. Electromyographical study on surgeons in urology II. Determination of muscular fatigue. Ergonomics 39(2):298-313.

Makino, S. 1995. Health problems in health care workers in Japan. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsbeg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Malchaire, JB. 1992. Analysis of the work load of nurses. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Manuaba, A. 1992. Social-cultural approach is a must in designing hospital in developing countries, Indonesia as a case study. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Maruna, H. 1990. Zur Hepatitis-B-Durchseuchung in den Berufen des Gesundheits und Fürsorgewesens der Republik Österreichs, Arbeitsmed. Präventivmed. Sozialmed 25:71-75.

Matsuda, A. 1992. Ergonomics approach to nursing care in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

McCall, T. 1988. The impact of long working hours on resident physicians. New Engl J Med 318(12):775-778.

McCloy, E. 1994. Hepatitis and the EEC Directive. Presented at the 2nd International Conference on Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, Stockholm.

McCormick, RD, MG Meuch, IG Irunk, and DG Maki. 1991. Epidemiology for hospital sharp injuries: A 14-year prospective study in the pre-AIDS and AIDS era. Am J Med 3B:3015-3075.

McCue, JD. 1982. The effects of stresses on physicians and their medical practice. New Engl J Med 306:458-463.

McIntyre, JWR. 1985. Ergonomics: Anaesthetists’ use of auditory alarms in the operating room. Int J Clin Monit Comput 2:47-55

McKinney, PW, MM Horowitz, and RJ Baxtiola. 1989. Susceptibility of hospital-based health care personnel to varicella zoster virus infection. Am J Infect Control 18:26-30.

Melleby, A. 1988. Exercise program for a healthy back. In Diagnosis and Treatment of Muscle Pain. Chicago, IL: Quintessence Books.

Meyer,TJ, SE Eveloff, MS Bauer, WA Schwartz, NS Hill, and PR Millman. 1994. Adverse environmental conditions in the respiratory and medical intensive care unit settings. Chest 105:1211-1216.

Miller, E, J Vurdien, and P Farrington. 1993. Shift age in chickenpox. Lancet 1:341.

Miller, JM. 1982. William Stewart Halsted and the use of the surgical rubber glove. Surgery 92:541-543.

Mitsui, T, K Iwano, K Maskuko, C Yanazaki, H Okamoto, F Tsuda, T Tanaka, and S Mishiros. 1992. Hepatitis C virus infection in medical personnel after needlestick accidents. Hepatology 16:1109-1114.

Modig, B. 1992. Hospital ergonomics in a biopsychosocial perspective. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Momtahan, K, R Hétu, and B Tansley. 1993. Audibility and identification of auditory alarms in the operating room and intensive care unit. Ergonomics 36(10):1159-1176.

Momtahan, KL and BW Tansley. 1989. An ergonomic analysis of the auditory alarm signals in the operating room and recovery room. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Acoustical Association, 18 October, Halifax, NS.

Montoliu, MA, V Gonzalez, B Rodriguez, JF Quintana, and L Palenciano.1992. Conditions de travail dans la blanchisserie centrale des grands hôpitaux de Madrid. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Moore, RM, YM Davis, and RG Kaczmarek. 1993. An overview of occupational hazards among veterinarians, with particular reference to pregnant women. Am J Ind Hyg Assoc 54(3):113-120.

Morel, O. 1994. Les agents des services hospitaliers. Vécu et santé au travail. Arch mal prof 54(7):499-508.

Nachemson, AL and GBJ Anderson. 1982. Classification of low back pain. Scand J Work Environ Health 8:134-136.

National Health Service (NHS). 1991a. Design Guide. The Design of Community Hospitals. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

—. 1991b. Health Building Note 46: General Medical Practice Premises for the Provision of Primary Health Care Service. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1975. Development and Evaluation of Methods for the Elimination of Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors in Hospitals. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 75-137. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1997a. Control of Occupational Exposure to N₂O in the Dentral Operatory. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-171. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1977b. Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-1409. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1988. Guidelines for Protecting the Safety and Health of Health Care Workers. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-119. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1994. NIOSH Alert: Request for Assistance in Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide during Anesthetic Administration. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Niu, MT, DS Stein, and SM Schnittmann. 1993. Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: Review of pathogenesis and early treatment interventions in human and animal retrovirus infections. J Infect Dis 168:1490-1501.

Noweir, MH and MS al-Jiffry. 1991. Study of noise pollution in Jeddah hospitals. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 66 (3/4):291-303.

Nyman, I and A Knutsson. 1995. Psychosocial wellbeing and sleep quality in hospital night and day workers. In Occuaptional Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Objectif Prévention N^o spécial. 1994. Le lève personne sur rail au plafond: Outil de travail indispensable. Objectif Prévention 17(2):13-39.

O’Carroll, TM. 1986. Survey of alarms in an intensive therapy unit. Anaesthesia 41:742-744.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 1991. Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens: Final Rule. 29 CFR Part 1910.1030. Washington, DC: OSHA.

Oëler, JM. 1993. Developmental care of low birth weight infants. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):289-301.

Öhling, P and B Estlund. 1995. Working technique for health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander G. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Ollagnier, E and Lamarche MJ. 1993. Une intervention ergonomique dans un hôpital suisse: Impact sur la santé de l’organisation du personnel et des patients. In Ergonomie et santé, edited by D Ramaciotti and A Bousquet. Actes du XXVIII^e congrès de la SELF. Geneva: SELF.

Ott, C, M Estryn-Béhar, C Blanpain, A Astier, and G Hazebroucq. 1991. Conditionnement du médicament et erreurs de médication. J Pharm Clin 10:61-66.

Patkin, M. 1992. Hospital architecture: An ergonomic debacle. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Payer, L. 1988. Medicine and Culture: The Variety of Treatment in the United States, England, West Germany and France. New York: H. Holt.

Payne, R and J Firth-Cozens (eds.). 1987. Stress in Health Professions. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

—. 1995. Determination of dinitrogen oxide (N₂O) in urine as control to anesthetic exposure. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Pelikan, JM. 1993. Improving occupational health for health care workers within the health promoting hospital: Experiences from the Vienna WHO model project “health and hospital”. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Pérez, L, R De Andrés, K. Fitch, and R Najera. 1994. Seroconversiones a VIH tras Sanitarios en Europa. Presented at the 2nd Reunión Nacional sobre el SIDA Cáceres.

Philip, RN, KRT Reinhard, and DB Lackman. 1959. Observations on a mumps epidemic in a “virgin” population. Am J Hyg 69:91-111.

Pottier, M. 1992. Ergonomie à l’hôpital-hospital ergonomics. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Poulton, EC, GM Hunt, A Carpenter, and RS Edwards. 1978. The performance of junior hospital doctors following reduced sleep and long hours of work. Ergonomics 21:279-295.

Pöyhönen, T and M Jokinen. 1980. Stress and Other Occupational Health Problems Affecting Hospital Nurses. Vantaa, Finland: Tutkimuksia.

Raffray, M. 1994. Etude de la charge physique des AS par mesure de la fréquence cardiaque. Objectif soins 26:55-58.

Ramaciotti, D, S Blaire, A Bousquet, E Conne, V Gonik, E Ollagnier, C Zummermann, and L Zoganas. 1990. Processus de régulation des contraintes économiques physiologiques et sociales pour différents groupes de travail en horaires irréguliers et de nuit. Le travail humain 53(3):193-212.

Reuben, DB. 1985. Depressive symptoms in medical house officers: Effects of level of training and work rotation. Arch Intern Med 145:286-288.

Reznick, RK and JR Folse. 1987. Effect of sleep deprivation on the performance of surgical residents. Am J Surg 154:520-52.

Rhoads, JM.1977. Overwork. JAMA 237:2615-2618.

Rodary, C and A Gauvain-Piquard 1993. Stress et épuisement professionnel. Objectif soins 16:26-34.

Roquelaure, Y, A Pottier, and M Pottier. 1992. Approche ergonomique comparative de deux enregistreurs electroencéphalographiques. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Rosell, MG, P Luna, and X Guardino. 1989. Evaluacion y Control de Contaminantes QuPmicos en Hospitales. Technical Document No. 57. Barcelona: INSHT.

Rubin, R, P Orris, SL Lau, DO Hryhorczuk, S Furner, and R Letz. 1991. Neurobehavioral effects of the on-call experience in housestaff physicians. J Occup Med 33:13-18.

Saint-Arnaud, L, S Gingras, R Boulard., M Vezina and H Lee-Gosselin. 1992. Les symptômes psychologiques en milieu hospitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Samkoff, JS, CHM Jacques. 1991. A review of studies concerning effects of sleep deprivation and fatigue on residents’ performance. Acad Med 66:687-693.

Sartori, M, G La Terra, M Aglietta, A Manzin, C Navino, and G Verzetti. 1993. Transmission of hepatitis C via blood splash into conjunctiva. Scand J Infect Dis 25:270-271.

Saurel, D. 1993. CHSCT Central, Enquete “Rachialgies” Résultats. Paris: Assistance Publique-Höpitaux de Paris, Direction du personnel et des relations sociales.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, M Hay, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Work in operating rooms and pregnancy outcome among nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 66:235-241.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, MKaminski, J Llhado-Arkhipoff, C Du Mazaubrum, M Estryn-Behar, C Berthier, M Mouchet, and C Kelfa. 1985. Pregnancy and its outcome among hospital personnel according to occupation and working condition. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 39:129-134.

Schröer, CAP, L De Witte, and H Philipsen. 1993. Effects of shift work on quality of sleep, health complaints and medical consumption of female nurses. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Senevirane, SR, De A and DN Fernando. 1994. Influence of work on pregnancy outcome. Int J Gynecol Obstet VOL: 35-40.

Shapiro, ET, H Pinsker and JH Shale. 1975. The mentally ill physician as practitioner. JAMA 232(7):725-727.

Shapiro, RA and T Berland. 1972. Noise in the operating room. New Engl J Med 287(24):1236-1238.

Shindo, E. 1992. The present condition of nursing ergonomics in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Siegel, A, M Michaelis, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and W Peinecke. 1993. Use and acceptance of lifting aids in hospitals and geriatric homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Smith, MJ, MJ Colligan, IJ Frocki, and DL Tasto. 1979. Occupational injury rates among nurses as a function of shift schedule. Journal of Safety Research 11(4):181-187.

Smith-Coggins, R, MR Rosekind, S Hurd, and KR Buccino. 1994. Relationship of day versus night sleep to physician performance and mood. Ann Emerg Med 24:928-934.

Snook, SH. 1988a. Approaches to the control of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

—. 1988b. The costs of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

South, MA, JL Sever, and L Teratogen. 1985. Update: The congenital rubella syndrome. Teratology 31:297-392.

Spence, AA. 1987. Environmental pollution by inhalation anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 59:96-103.

Stellman, JM. 1976. Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities. New York: Pantheon.

Steppacher, RC and JS Mausner. 1974. Suicide in male and female physicians. JAMA 228(3):323-328.

Sterling, DA. 1994. Overview of health and safety in the health care environment. In Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety, edited by W Charney. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Stoklov, M, P Trouiller, P Stieglitz, Y Lamalle, F Vincent, A Perdrix, C Marka, R de Gaudemaris, JM Mallion, and J Faure. 1983. L’exposition aux gaz anethésiques: Risques et prévention. Sem Hôs 58(29/39):2081-2087.

Storer, JS, HH Floyd, WL Gill, CW Giusti, and H Ginsberg. 1989. Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive ability and skills of pediatrics residents. Acad Med 64:29-32.

Stubbs, DA, PW Buckle, and PM Hudson. 1983. Back pain in the nursing profession; I Epidemiology and pilot methodology. Ergonomics 26:755-765.

Sundström-Frisk C and M Hellström.1995. The risk of making treatment errors, an occupational stressor. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Swann-D’Emilia, B, JCH Chu, and J Daywalt. 1990. Misadministration of prescribed radiation dose. Medical Dosimetry 15:185-191.

Sydow, B and F Hofmann. 1994. Unpublished results.

Tannenbaum, TN and RJ Goldberg. 1985. Exposure to anaesthetic gases and reproductive outcome: A review of epidemiologic literature. J Occup Med 27:659-671.

Teyssier-Cotte, C, M Rocher, and P Mereau. 1987. Les lits dans les établissements de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS 29:27-34.

Theorell, T. 1989. The psychosocial working environment. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Theorell T. 1993. On the psychosocial environment in care. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech : Ecomed Verlag.

Tintori, R and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Communication: Où, quand, comment? Critères ergonomiques pour améliorer la communication dans les services de soins. Gestions Hospitalières 338:553-561.

Tintori, R, M Estryn-Behar, J De Fremont, T Besse, P Jacquenot, A Le Vot, and B Kapitaniak. 1994. Evaluation des lits à hauteur variable. Une démarche de recherche en soins infirmiers. Gestions Hospitalières 332:31-37.

Tokars, JI, R Marcus, DH Culver, CA Schable, PS McKibben, CL Bandea, and DM Bell. 1993. Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use among health care workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected blood. Ann Intern Med 118:913-919.

Toomingas, A. 1993. The health situation among Swedish health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Topf, M. 1992. Effects of personal control over hospital noise on sleep. Research in Nursing & Health 15(1):19-28.

Tornquist, A and P Ullmark. 1992. Corporate Space and Architecture, Actors and Procedures. Paris: Ministère de l’équipement du logement et des transports.

Townsend, M. 1994. Just a glove? Br J Theatre Nurs 4(5):7,9-10.

Tran, N, J Elias, T Rosenber, D Wylie, D Gaborieau, and A Yassi. 1994. Evaluation of waste anesthetic gases, monitoring strategies and corelations between nitrous oxide levels and health symptoms. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 55(1):36-42.

Turner, AG, CH King, and G Craddock. 1975. Measuring and reducing noise. Noise profile of hospital shows that even “quiet” areas are too noisy. Hospital JAHA 49:85-89.

US Preventive Services Task Force. 1989. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of 169 interventions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Vaillant, GE, NC Sorbowale, and C McArthur. 1972. Some psychologic vulnerabilities of physicians. New Engl J Med 287:372-375.

Vaisman, AI. 1967. Working conditions in surgery and their effects on the health of anesthesiologists. Eskp Khir Anesteziol 12:44-49.

Valentino, M, MA Pizzichini, F Monaco, and M Governa. 1994. Latex-induced asthma in four healthcare workers in a regional hospital. Occup Med (Oxf) 44(3):161-164.

Valko, RJ and PJ Clayton. 1975. Depression in the internships. Dis Nerv Syst 36:26-29.

Van Damme, P and GA Tormanns. 1993. European risk model. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Hepatitis B as an Occupatioonal Hazard. 10-12.

Van Damme, P, R Vranckx, A Safary, FE Andre, and A Mehevs. 1989. Protective efficacy of a recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid hepatitis B vaccine in institutionalized mentally handicapped clients. Am J Med 87(3A):265-295.

Van der Star, A and M Voogd. 1992. User participation in the design and evaluation of a new model hospital bed. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Van Deursen, CGL, CAM Mul, PGW Smulders and CR De Winter. 1993. Health and working situation of day nurses compared with a matched group of nurses on rotating shift work. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Van Hogdalem, H. 1990. Design guidelines for architects and users. In Building for People in Hospitals, Workers and Consumers. Luxembourg: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

Van Wagoner, R and N Maguire. 1977. A study of hearing loss among employees in a large urban hospital. Canadian Journal of Public Health 68:511-512.

Verhaegen, P, R Cober, DE Smedt, J Dirkx, J Kerstens, D Ryvers, and P Van Daele. 1987. The adaptation of night nurses to different work schedules. Ergonomics 30(9):1301-1309.

Villeneuve, J. 1992. Une demarche d’ergonomie participative dans le secteur hôspitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1994. PARC: Des fondations solides pour un projet de rénovation ou de construction Objectif prévention (Montreal) 17(5):14-16.

Wade, JG and WC Stevens. 1981. Isoflurane: An ansaesthetic for the eighties? Anesth Analg 60(9):666-682.

Wahlen, L. 1992. Noise in the intensive care setting. Canadian Critical Care Nursing Journal, 8/9(4/1):9-10.

Walz, T, G Askerooth, and M Lynch. 1983. The new upside-down welfare state. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Wands, SE and A Yassi. 1993. Modernization of a laundry processing plant: Is it really an improvement? Appl Ergon 24(6):387-396.

Weido, AJ and TC Sim. 1995. The burgeoning problem of latex sensitivity. Surgical gloves are only the beginning. Postgrad Med 98(3):173-174,179-182,184.

Wiesel, SW, HL Feffer, and RH Rothmann. 1985. Industrial Low Back Pain. Charlottesville,VA: Michie.

Wigaeus Hjelm, E, M Hagberg, and S Hellstrom. 1993. Prevention of musculoskeletal disorders in nursing aides by physical training. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Wigand, R and Y Grenner. 1988. Personaluntersuchungen auf Immunität gegen Masern, Varizellen und Röteln, Saarländ. Ärztebl 41:479-480.

Wilkinson, RT, PD Tyler and CA Varey. 1975. Duty hours of young hospital doctors: Effects on the quality of work. J Occup Psychol 48:219-229.

Willet, KM. 1991. Noise-induced hearing loss in orthopaedic staff. J Bone Joint Surg 73:113-115.

Williams, M and JD Murphy. 1991. Noise in critical care units: A quality assurance approach. Journal of Nursing Care Quality 6(1):53-59.

World Health Organization (WHO). 1990. Guidelines on AIDS and First Aid in the Workplace. WHO AIDS Series No. 7. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1991. Biosafety Guidelines for Diagnostic and Research Laboratories Working with HIV. WHO AIDS Series No. 9. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1995. Weekly Epidemiological Report (13 January).

Wugofski, L. 1995. Occupational accident in health care workers—Epidemiology and prevention. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Yassi, A. 1994. Assault and abuse of health care workers in a large teaching hospital. Can Med Assoc J 151(9):1273-1279.

Yassi, A and M McGill. 1991. Determinants of blood and body fluid exposure in a large teaching hospital: Hazards of the intermittent intravenous procedure. American Journal of Infection Control 19(3):129-135.

—. 1995. Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of a needleless intravenous access system. American Journal of Infection Control 22(2):57-64.

Yassi, A, J Gaborieau, J Elias, and D Willie. 1992. Identification and control of hazardous noise levels in a hospital complex. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Yassi, A, D Gaborieau, I Gi

Strain in Health Care Work

Contents

Health Care Facilities and Services References